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A    COMPLETE    TREATISE 


ON  BUTTER-MAKING  AT  FACTORIES  AND  FARM  DAIRIES,  INCLUDING 

THE  SELECTION,  FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  STOCK  FOR 

BUTTER  DAIRYING- WITH  PLANS  FOR  DAIRY  ROOMS  AND 

CREAMERIES,  DAIRY  FIXTURES,  UTENSILS,  ETC. 


BY 

X.  A.  WILLARD,   M.A., 

AUTHOR    or     "PRACTICAL    DAIRY    HUSBANDRY,"    "ESSAYS    ON     AGRICUL- 
TURE,"   "MILK    CONDENSING    FACTORIES,"    EDITOR     OF     DAIRY 
DEPARTMENT      OP       MOORE'S       RURAL     NEW-YORKER- 
PRESIDENT  N.  Y.  STATE  DAIRYMEN'S   ASSO.,  ETC. 


FULLY     ILLUSTRATED. 


NEW  YORK: 

EXCELSIOR  PUBLISHINa  HOUSE 

29  AND  31  BEEKMAN  STREET. 


:#^- 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1875,  by 

THE    RURAL    PUBLISHING   CO., 

In  the  oflBce  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


FREF^CE 


■:o:- 


BuTTER  dairying  is  a  specialty  of  such  large  and  growing  im- 
portance that  a  treatise  wholly  devoted  to  that  interest,  it  would 
seem,  is  very  widely  demanded.  I  have  endeavored  to  meet  this 
general  want  by  supplying  full  information  concerning  the  latest 
improvements  in  creamery  practice,  and  by  furnishing  a  work  that 
is  a  safe,  practical  and  comprehensive  butter  manual.  The  work 
has  been  freshly  written,  and  gives  the  result  not  only  of  my  owa 
experience,  and  extensive  personal  observation,  but  the  most  ap- 
proved practice  of  the  best  butter-makers  at  home  and  abroad. 

In  the  matter  illustrating  the  secretion  of  milk  and  mammary 
gland,  I  am  indebted  mainly  to  the  writings  of  Prof.  Simonds,  the 
distinguished  Veterinary  Surgeon  to  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society, 
of  England. 

Among  the  new  topics  of  interest,  and  which  heretofore  have 
not  been  presented  to  the  dairy  pubhc  are  :  Prof.  Wilkinson's 
plan  for  controlling  temperature  in  dairy  rooms  ;  the  Swedish  Sys- 
tem of  setting  milk  for  cream  in  ice  water  ;  the  new  practice 
adopted  at  the  Ridge  Mills  Creamery,  and  the  recent  method  for 
improving  skimmed  milk  in  skimmed-cheese  manufacture.  These 
are  very  fully  discussed,  and  will  be  found  suggestive  to  practical 
and  progressive  butter-makers. 

That  the  work  may  prove  useful  to  the  large  class  for  which  it 
is  intended,  is  the  sincere  wish  of  the  author. 

X.  A.  W. 

Little  Falls,  N.  Y. 


T 


IS"DEX   OF  ILLUSTEATIOXS. 


Aerator 66 

Boiler,  Anderson 122 

"     andEngine 118 

"      Iron  Slave 119 

'«      Roe's 120 

Butter  Box,  with  ice-chamber Ill 

"      Factory,  ground  plan  of 123 

'*      Factory,  original,  ground  plan  of 93 

«'      Pail,  Wescott  s  Return lOS 

"      Pail,  enameled 145 

"      Pail,  metalic  146 

''      Package,  White's 110 

'•      Worker,  Champion 105 

"      Worker,  Eureka     65 

"      Worker,  Orange  County 104 

Cans,  Wickoflf's  Ventilating lit 

Churn,  Barrel 101 

"     Blanchard 100 

"      dasher 97 

"      Tornado .^. &3 

"      -with  walking  beam 98 

"      Whipple's  Rectangular 64 

Coecal  Extremities,  view  of 39 

Colostrum,  Microscopical  appearance  of 37 

Cover,  for  cooling  vat  164 

Cream  Dipper  and  Pail 95 

"      Strainer,  Baker's 62 

Creamery,  ground  plan  of  for  large  i)ans 128 

"         interior  view  of 165 

"         Ridge  Mills,  elevation  166 

"        Ridge  Mills,  gi-ound  plan l(>i 

••'         Plan  of  for  pail  and  pool 115 

"         Sectional  view  of 164 

"         Union,  plan  of 112 

Daii-y  Room,  ground  plan  of  Gulf  Stream 82-83 

Gang  Press,  Frazer's  , 160 

Milk  Cellar.  Crozier's 74 

''    GlobiUes,  Microscopical  appearance  of 36 

"    Pan,  Iron  Clad 77 

''    Pan,  Cowles 127 

^'    Pan,  Jewett 126 

•'    Pan,  Orange  County 126 

"    Secreting  Follicles,  an-angement  of 40 

*'    Vault  and  Churn  Room 73 

Pail,  butter,  Philadelphia 71 

"    Iron  Clad 62 

Scales,  Jones'  Factory 117 

Steamer  and  Caldron 121 

Vdder  of  Cow 41 

Vat  and  Portable  Heater,  Millar's 158 

"  and  Heater,  Roe's 159 

"      »'        "      157 


IMPORTANCE  OF   BUTTER  DAIRYING. 

THE    BUTTER    CROP. 

The  annual  butter  crop  of  the  United  States  has  been 
variously  estimated  at  from  700,000,000  to  1,000,000,000 
of  pounds.  But  enormous  as  these  figures  are,  the  lead- 
ing butter  merchants  of  New  York  believe  the  product  to 
be  larger.  During  the  summer  of  1864  the  New  York 
Butter  and  Cheese  Exchange  appointed  a  committee  of  emi- 
nent merchants  to  consider  the  subject  of  classifying  and 
grading  butter,  in  order  to  facilitate  trade  in  this  import- 
ant staple. 

The  committee,  in  its  report,  states  that  the  census  re- 
turns  of  dairy  products  are  incomplete  and  defective  ;  and 
it  is  affirmed,  furtheiv  that  the  latest,  the  most  analytical 
and  reasonable  estimate  in  regard  to  the  present  butter 
crop  of  the  country  is  the  following,  Avhich  was  prepared 
by  an  experienced  and  careful  statistician,  who  estimates 
the  annual  product  to  be  over  1,400,000,000  pounds.  If 
the  average  price  be  put  at  30c.  per  pound— a  sum  which 
would  not  be  considered  excessive  for  a  fine  quality  of 
butter— we  find  the  total  value  of  the  product  to  be 
$420,000,000. 

The  quantity,  in  my  opinion,  is  estimated  at  too  high  a 
figure ;  yet  it  is  believed  by  many  persons  who  are  well 
acquainted  with  the  trade,  to  be  much  nearer  the  truth 
than  the  census  returns. 

Mr.  Fairfield,  President  of  the  Butter  and  Cheese 
Exchange,  in  a  recent  statement  in  regard  to  the  statis- 
tics of  American  dairy  products,  puts  the  consumption  of 
butter  in  the  United  States  at  1,040,000,000  pounds  per 
annum  for  table  use  alone,  and  says  it  is  estimated  that 
one-third  more  may  be  added  for  culinary  purposes,  mak- 
ing a  total  consumption  of  about  1,387,000,000  pounds. 
The  exports  from  the  United  States  and  Canada  are  about 
15,000,000  pounds,  making  an  annual  product  of  1,402,- 
000,000  pounds.    Mr.  Fairfield  also  calls  attention  to 


iy»i^^     r> 


Q  WILLAED'S    PRACTICAL 

the  incompleteness  and  uselessness  of  the  statistics  of  the 
Census  Bureau,  and  suggests  the  establishment  of  a  Bu- 
reau of  Statistics  at  Washington,  which  shall  furnish 
complete  and  trustworthy  figures  bearing  upon  all  agri- 
cultural products. 

THE  BATE  OP  BUTTER  CONSUMPTIOX. 

Nor  does  the  quantity  seem  so  extravagant  when  the 
estimates  of  consumption  are  given  in  detail,  especially 
when  it  is  considered  that  Americans  are  excessively  fond 
of  this  article  of  food.  The  report  referred  to  estimates 
that  out  of  our  population,  5,000,000  consume  one  pound 
of  butter  each  per  week  ;  10,000,000  consume  three-fourths 
of  a  pound  each  per  week;  10,000,000  consume  one-half 
pound  each  per  week  and  10,000,000  consume  one-quarter 
pound  each  per  Aveek. 

At  this  rate,  35,000,000  would  consume  1,040,000,000 
pounds  per  annum  for  table  use  and  one-third  as  much  as 
the  above  for  culinary  purposes.  This  leaves  a  popula- 
tion of  9,000,000  not  included  as  consumers.  In  addition, 
the  exports  from  the  United  States  and  Canada  are  esti- 
mated at  upwards  of  15,000,000  pounds,  making  the 
product  aggregate  as  before  stated  — 1,400,000,000  of 
pounds. 

NUMBER    OF    COWS    REQUIRED    FOR   THE    BUTTER   CROP. 

Now,  from  statistics  in  regard  to  the  distribution  of  the 
entire  milk  product  of  the  countiy,  it  is  estimated  that  at 
least  54  per  cent,  is  employed  for  butter-making.  Then, 
if  200  pounds  ot  butter  per  annum  to  the  cow  be  taken  as 
an  average,  it  would  require  7,200,000  cows  to  make  the 
annual  yield  of  1,440,000,000  pounds.  This  would  make 
the  number  of  milch  cows  in  the  United  States  at  the 
present  time  to  be  a  little  over  13,000,000 — a  number 
which  many  believe  is  not  far  out  of  the  way,  as  would 
be  shown  if  the  census  were  accurately  taken  to-day, 
enumerating  all  the  cows — the  family  cow  as  well  as  those 
employed  in  the  various  branches  of  dairying. 

CONSUMPTION   INCREASES    AS    QUALITY   IMPROVES. 

It  has  been  observed — and  indeed,  the  fact  seems  to  be 
beyond  question — that  as  we  improve  the  quality  of  our 
dairy  products,  the  consumption  per  capita  increases; 


BUTTER    BOOK.  /^ 

and  this  has  been  especially  so  in  regard  to  butter  since 
the  improvement  in  its  quality  on  account  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  creamery  system. 

A  well-known  dealer  of  ray  acquaintance  illustrates  this 
by  a  conversation  which  took  place  during  the  past  sum- 
mer between  him  and  one  of  his  customers.  The  dealer 
had  been  supplying  his  customer  with  fresh  creamery 
butter  of  the  finest  quality.  One  day  the  customer  came 
into  the  store  and  the  dealer  inquired  as  to  the  quality  of 
the  last  tub  of  butter  furnished.  The  customer  said  there 
could  be  no  fault  found  with  the  quality,  but  that  he 
should  be  obliged  to  discontinue  its  use,  as  a  dollar  per 
pound  for  butter  was  more  than  he  could  well  afford. 
This  statement  very  much  disconcerted  the  dealer,  as  he 
thought  that  some  of  his  clerks,  perhaps,  had  carelessly 
sent  up  an  erroneous  and  outrageous  bill,  and  he  hastened 
to  assure  his  customer  that  there  must  be  some  mistake, 
as  there  was  no  intention  of  charging  more  than  the  market 
price,  which  was  then  some  33c.  per  pound.  "  And,"  said 
he,  "  I  asked  my  book-keeper,  with  considerable  trepida- 
tion, to  turn  back  to  the  account  and  correct  the  error 
that  had  been  made."  But  on  referring  to  the  books,  it 
appeared  that  only  the  regular  market  price  had  been 
charged  and  credited  ;  and  on  announcing  this  to  the  cus- 
tomer, he  acknowledged  that  indeed  he  had  paid  no  more 
than  the  sum  stated,  but  that  the  consumption  of  the 
creamery  butter  had  been  three  times  greater  per  day,  by 
his  family,  than  when  supplied  with  the  ordinary  butter 
obtained  of  the  grocer — and  thus  the  cost  might  be  said 
to  average  a  dollar  per  pound.  "In  other  words,"  said 
he,  "  your  creamery  butter  is  so  delicious,  that  my  family 
never  seem  to  get  enough  to  satisfy  them,  and  a  tub  of 
butter  vanishes  like  the  dew." 

PKICE  OF  BUTTER  ADVANCING  ABROAD. 

Another  feature  of  importance  in  regard  to  butter  may 
be  mentioned  in  this  connection :  the  price — though  at 
times  liable  to  fluctuate  like  that  for  other  commodities- 
appears  on  the  whole  to  be  gradually  rising.  The  En- 
glish markets  have  shown  this  for  several  years  past. 
Daring  the  last  two  years,  and  especially  during  1874, 
the  trade  in  London  has  complained  of  the  scarcity  of  a 
good  article.     Butter  imported  into  England  from  the 


g  WILLARD  S   PRACTICAL 

continent  of  Europe  has  been  quoted  as  high  as  168  shil- 
lings sterling  per  cwt.  That  is  to  say  about  36  cents, 
gold,  per  pound.  High  prices  in  England  have  a  ten- 
dency to  maintain  good  prices  on  this  side. 

But  in  addition  to  this  outlet  the  time  is  close  at  hand 
when  the  entire  demand  for  dairy  products  in  the  West 
Indies  and  South  America  will  be  supplied  from  the 
United  States,  and  will  become  an  important  trade. 
Increased  transportation  facilities,  the  use  of  metalic 
packages,  and  improved  methods  of  putting  down  butter, 
so  that  it  will  remain  unimpaired  during  the  sea  voyage, 
together  with  the  best  methods  of  manufacture,  must  add 
greatly  to  the  prosperity  and  permanency  of  this  branch 
of  dairying.  The  estimates  presented  will  be  sufficient 
for  dairymen  to  fully  appreciate  the  situation. 


THE  BUTTER  COW-ITS  MANAGEMENT,  ETC., 


The  limit  assigned  for  this  book  will  not  permit  me  to 
enter  upon  an  elaborate  treatise  in  regard  to  the  different 
breeds  of  milch  stock.  Nor  can  any  one  breed  be  recom- 
mended for  all  situations,  or  to  best  suit  the  wants  of  all 
persons  engaged  in  butter  dairying.  Farms  differ  widely 
in  their  character.  Some  lands  have  a  level  surface, 
others  are  rolling  or  gently  undulating,  while  others  yet 
are  hilly  and  broken.  Soils,  too,  vary  from  the  richest  to 
the  poorest.  Again,  one  farmer  desires  to  make  butter 
and  cheese ;  another  wants  to  get  the  best  returns  from 
his  animals  in  butter,  cheese  and  beef,  or  in  butter  and 
beef,. while  a  third  is  looking  simply  for  the  best  butter 
yield  alone.  It  is  evident  no  one  breed  will  fulfill  all 
these  conditions  at  once  and  at  the  same  time.  As  a 
general  principle,  it  may  be  affirmed  that  good  butter 
can  be  produced  from  any  breed,  and  not  unfrequently  a 


BUTTER    BOOK.  9 

common  cow,  with  no  renowned  blood  in  her  veins  to 
boast  of,  will  yield  as  much  and  as  good  butter  as  the 
boasted  cow  that  has  a  long  record  in  the  herd  book. 

As  a  rule,  it  may  be  said  that  the  small  breeds  give  the 
richest  milk.  The  Jersey,  the  Devon  and  the  Kerry  are 
j^erhaps  the  most  noted  in  this  regard.  They  do  not 
yield  so  large  a  quantity  as  some  other  breeds ;  nor  does 
it  always  follow  that  a  cow  giving  very  rich  milk  will  be 
the  most  profitable  for  butter-making,  because  a  cow 
yielding  a  larger  quantity  of  average  good  milk  may 
make  better  returns  in  butter.  The  Ayrshire  is  con- 
ceded to  give  a  large  quantity  of  milk  of  average  good 
quality,  but  inferior  in  richness  to  that  of  the  Jersey  or 
Devon,  and  on  some  farms  she  may  be  the  best  butter 
cow.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Short  Horn  and  other 
breeds. 

The  Jersey  cow  has  some  characteristics  not  common 
with  other  breeds.  She  yields  not  only  a  very  rich  milk, 
but  it  is"  of  a  deep,  yellow  color,  and  the  butter  is  of  a 
harder  and  more  waxy  texture  than  that  from  other 
breeds.  Among  butter  dairymen  tlie  pure-bred  Jersey, 
or  a  dash  of  Jersey  blood,  is  very  mucli  esteemed.  Some 
have  claimed  tliat  the  butter  from  Jersey  cows,  on  ac- 
count of  tlie  peculiarities  named,  lias  a  superiority  which 
will  command  a  better  price  than  other  butter.  This, 
however,  may  be  considered  a  doubtful  claim.  At  least 
it  is  not  made  good  in  the  London  market,  where  con- 
siderable quantities  of  Jersey  butter  are  sold,  which  al- 
ways brings  a  lower  price  than  several  other  kinds.  But 
whether  this  be  due  to  peculiarities  in  flavor  and  texture, 
or  to  a  less  skillful  method  of  manufacturing,  is  a  ques- 
tion also  of  consideration.  Mr.  Charles  L.  Flint,  Sec- 
retary of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Agi-iculture,  affirms 
that  Jersey  butter  has  a  peculiar  flavor,  which  is  not 
fancied  in  Boston.  On  the  other  hand,  much  of  the  high- 
priced  butter  of  Philadelphia  is  made  from  Jersey  cows. 
Hence  we  do  not  regard  the  claim  of  superiority  or  in- 
feriority, on  account  of  the  breed,  of  much  account,  be- 
lieving that  fine  butter,  by  proper  manufacture,  can  be 
made  from  different  breeds. 

The  dairyman  should  have  a  clear  understanding  as  to 
his  situation,  the  character  of  his  lands,  and  what  he  is 
seeking  to  realize  from  his  stock,  and  then  choose  that 


10  WILLARD'S    PRACTICAL 

breed  which  is  best  adapted  to  his  purpose.  But  in  say- 
ing this  it  must  not  be  inferred  that  we  regard  a  thor- 
ough-bred herd  as  indispensable  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the 
cheapest  and  perhaps  the  most  practical  course  to  be 
adopted  will  be  to  select  the  best  common  cows  that  are 
to  be  had,  and  cross  them  with  a  thorough-bred  bnll  of 
the  breed  best  adapted  to  his  purpose.  Breeding  in  this 
way,  from  year  to  year,  he  will  be  likely  to  obtain  a  herd 
that  will  yield  him  the  most  profit,  and  at  the  least  ex- 
pense. 

THE    MILK    OP    EACH    ANIMAL    SHOULD    BE   TESTED. 

In  choosing  stock  for  the  butter  dairy,  each  cow 
should  be  tested  separately  as  to  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  milk  she  is  capable  of  yielding.  The  milk  should  be 
accurately  weighed  or  measured  and  then  set  aside  to 
cream,  and  the  percentage  of  cream  determined.  But 
this  will  not  be  sufficient,  for  some  cows  will  give  a  large 
percentage  of  cream,  yielding  a  comparatively  small  quan- 
tity of  butter.  The  cream,  therefore,  must  be  churned  and 
the  percentage  of  butter  obtained.  In  this  way  the  dairy- 
man will  be  able  to  form  a  true  estimate  of  the  amount 
of  butter  in  each  cowl's  milk,  and  from  such  estimate  he 
will  learn  what  animals  in  his  herd  are  best  adapted  to 
butter-dairying,  and  those  that  should  be  discarded  as  not 
fitted  for  his  business. 

Large  losses  are  often  sustained  by  keeping  inferior 
stock.  Many  dairymen  can  give  no  accurate  account  of 
the  value  of  any  cow's  milk  in  the  herd.  They  know^  at 
the  end  of  the  year  the  quantity  of  butter  that  has  been 
produced  from  the  whole  herd ;  but  if  it  falls  below  w^hat 
would  be  considered  an  average  product  they  are  unable 
to  point  to  the  true  cause  of  the  deficiency.  Not  unfre- 
quently  the  cow  that  gives  a  large  mess  of  milk  is  cred- 
ited much  higher  than  the  one  yielding  a  moderate  quan- 
tity, and  yet  the  latter,  on  account  of  its  superior  rich- 
ness, may  be  altogether  the  best  butter  co^y.  Some 
dairymen  are  under  the  impression  that  exceedingly  rich 
milk  is  made  by  excessive  feeding,  ignoring  the  fact  that 
the  real  butter  cows  must  be  sought  for  in  particular  ani- 
mals or  breeds  noted  for  this  peculiarity.  Every  cow  has 
a  structural  limit  in  the  richness  of  milk  whicli  she  will 
yield,  and  beyond  this  standard  of  richness  no  amount  of 


BUTTER    BOOK.  U 

feeding  will  increase.  Batter  dairymen,  therefore,  should 
be  careful  to  test  the  capacity  of  each  cow  in  this  regard, 
and  they  should  enter  her  record  on  a  book  kept  for  the 
purpose,*  so  that  they  may  know  what  animals  are  yield- 
ing a  profit  and  those  that  are  not  paying  the  expenses  of 
their  keep. 

THE  PER  CENT.  CREAM  GAUGE. 

A  vessel  for  obtaining  the  percentage  of  cream  can  be 
readily  made  on  the  plan  suggested  by  Mr.  Douglass,  of 
Vermont.  He  takes  one  of  the  common  cans  or  pails 
used  in  the  pool  system  —  a  can,  say  20  inches  deep  by 
8  inches  in  diameter.  Then  by  cutting  out  a  slot  in  the 
can  and  inserting  a  strip  of  glass  in  grooves,  the  edges 
cemented  with  white  lead,  so  as  to  be  water-tight,  a  con- 
venient per  cent,  cream  gauge  may  be  had.  Now  graduate 
the  vessel,  placing  the  marks  on  the  tin  alongside  of  the 
glass  strip,  and  the  work  is  done.  By  setting  the  milk 
in  this  vessel  and  allowing  the  cream  to  rise,  its  percent- 
age may  be  seen  through  the  glass,  and  read  on  the 
scale. 

THE  AVERAGE  BUTTER  PRODUCT  OF  COWS. 

The  average  annual  product  of  good  cows,  say  in 
moderate  sized  herds  of  from  15  to  25  animals,  in  good 
dairy  districts,  is  about  200  pounds.  Extra  herds  not 
imfrequently  make  an  average  of  250  to  300  pounds  to 
each  cow,  while  individual  cows,  as  it  is  well  known,  are 
often  reported  as  yielding  a  much  larger  product.  The 
quantity  of  milk  required  to  make  a  pound  of  butter 
ranges  from  eight  to  twenty  quarts.  The  dairyman,  there- 
fore, a-^  we  have  remarked,  should  satisfy  himself  by  re- 
peats d  experiments  on  individual  cows,  whether  those 
that  yield  most  milk  are,  after  all,  the  most  profitable  for 
liis  particular  purpose.  A  writer  in  "  Morton's  Cyclope- 
dia" obtained  the  following  results  in  experiments  on  a 
small  dairy  of  5  cows  ;  the  object  being  to  determine  the 
exact  quantities  of  butter  and  cheese  in  the  milk  of  each  : 
A  weighed  quantity  of  milk  was  taken  from  the  noon's 
milking  of  each,  and  allowed  to  stand  in  separate  glass 
vessels  for  forty-five  hours.  A  portion  of  the  "  strip- 
pings''''  of  all  the  cows,  mixed,  was  also  set  apart,  to  de- 
termine   the  amount    of  butter   and    cheese    in  the  last 


12 


WILLAED'S    PEACnOAL 


drawn  milk.  When  the  cream  had  completely  separated 
from  the  milk,  a  fine-pointed  glass  syphon — sufficiently 
wide  in  the  bore  to  allow  the  milk  to  run  through  it,  but 
not  the  cream — was  introduced  into  the  vessel,  and  nearly 
touching  the  bottom.  The  air  was  then  exhausted  from 
the  syphon,  and  the  milk  withdrawn  into  another  vessel. 
The  cream  was  then  weiglied  and  agitated  in  a  glass  tube, 
until  the  butter  came,  which  was  then  well  washed  with 
pure  water  and  repeated  decantings  until  the  water  ran 
off  colorless.  The  weight  of  the  butter  was  then  care- 
fully ascertained,  and  the  difference  between  it  and  the 
cream  gave  the  weight  of  the  buttermilk.  The  butter 
was  then  put  in  a  minim  tube,  and  melted  at  a  low  tem- 
perature by  immersing  the  tube  in  warm  water.  The  re- 
maining buttermilk  and  cheesy  matter  sunk  to  the  bottom 
on  cooling,  and  the  proportion,  by  bulk,  noted  down. 

The  skimmed  milk  was  gently  warmed  to  90  degrees 
after  adding  a  little  acetic  acid  to  make  it  curdle.  The 
whey  was  separated  from  the  curd  by  filtration  and 
washing,  and  the  latter  dried  at  a  heat  not  exceeding 
212  degrees,  until  it  ceased  to  lose  weight.  The  weight 
of  the  dried  curd  (pure  caseine)  when  deducted  from  that 
of  the  milk,  left  as  a  remainder  the  weight  of  the  whey. 

The  following  table  shows  the  relative  quantities  of 
butter,  caseine,  (cheese)  and  whey,  the  latter  includes  the 
buttermilk  also : 


No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

No.  4. 

No.  5. 

S-S 

?'"'=! 

?<o 

n^ 

CT^>, 

: 

m 

cr_2. 

J?" 

-To* 

PmCmra, 

5-5  S 

m 

11 

III 

1 

3 

o 

it: 

:  5.^ 

\ii 

? 

:  <c ' 

•  3o 

:  5=- 

ill 

•    Q. 

'  4 

iff 

:s^ 

:  era 

;l= 

:  a. 

i«3 

4 

4.318 
3.017 

4.209 
3.4r2 

2.901) 
3.144 

3.079 
3.:«9 

4.700 
3.209 

10. 102 

CiiBeine  (cheln) 

3.294 

Whey,  Ac 

92.665 

92.379 

9;i.956 

93.532 

92.U91 

86.604 

100.00 

108.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

The  large  proportion  of  butter  in  the  last  drawn  milk 
is  seen  from  the  fiarures  in  the  last  column.     It  indicates 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


13 


the  truth  of  the  remark  we  once  heard  made  by  a  dairy 
farmer,  that  the  profits  of  Iiis  business  depended  princi- 
pally on  the  perfect  performance  of  the  operation  of  milking. 
The  quantity  of  milk  daily  from  each  of  these  cows 
during  seven  days  in  the  month  of  July  was  as  follows: 


Daily.... 

Weekly. 


Quarts. 
No.  1-  9% 
No.  1-68 


Quarts. 

No.  2-12% 
No.  2-89 


Quart.". 
No.  3-lH>^ 
No.  3-  9ti 


Quarts. 

No.  4-10% 
No.  4—75 


Quarts. 
No.  5-lOK 
Ne.  5-72 


If  we  take  the  weight  of  an  imperial  gallon  of  milk  at 
ten  pounds  three  ounces,  the  weekly  yield  per  cow  of 
butter,  cheese  (caseine)  and  whey  would  be  as  follows  : 


Prod'e  per  cow 
inqts,  .-ind  lbs. 


Butter  ... 

Caseine  .. 
Whey,  &c. 

Total.. 


No.  1 


68qts, 
173  3-10  1 


I    No.  Z 

I   89  qts. 
.  22K%  lbs. 


Lbs. 
7.- 97 
5,225 

160.496 

T73.20t. 


lbs. 

9.540 

7,734 

209.476 


226.750 


No.  3 


96  qts. 
244>i  lbs. 


Lbs. 

7.C9 

6  89 

230.52 

2U.m 


No,  4 


75  qts. 
]91  lbs. 


Lbs. 

5.8S1 

6.473 

178.t;46 


72  qts. 
183?^  lbs. 


Lbs. 
8,620 

5.885 
168.895 


191.000 


183.400 


Of  course  the  caseine  in  this  table  does  not  represent 
the  whole  of  the  cheese  which  the  milk  contained,  because 
the  process  employed  to  extract  it  separated  tlie  butter 
entirely  from  it,  besides  the  cheesy  matter  Mas  dried  to 
the  consistency  of  horn  before  being  weighed.  Common 
milk-cheese,  however  poor,  and  as  it  is  usually  made,  not 
only  contains  a  little  butter,  but  also  a  large  proportion  of 
water  or  wheyey  matter. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  quantity  of  butter  given  above 
is  no  doubt  larger  than  could  have  been  obtained  by  com- 
mon churning.  Still,  the  table  will  seive  to  show  cor- 
rectly the  comparative  as  well  as  absolute  amount  of  pure 
butter  and  caseine  contained  in  the  milk  of  each  cow. 

The  reader  will  see  from  these  tables  that  the  cow  No. 
3,  although  giving  six  gallons  of  milk  more  than  No.  5, 
and  seven  gallons  more  than  No.  1,  per  week,  is  under 
both  of  them  in  butter,  and  were  it  not  that  the  quantity 
of  buttermilk  is  great,  she  would  fall  below  them  in  profit 
too.  Her  milk  is  poor  in  butter  and  cheese,  and  there  is 
reason  to  suspect  that  the  quality  of  both  is  inferior  also. 

To  the  inland  daii-y  faj-mer  it'is  of  the  greatest  conse- 
quence to  get  cows  that  yield  rich  milk,  even  though  the 
quantity  should  not  be  so  very  great,  for  this  reason  that 
the  refuse  either  of  cheese  or  butter  making  can  be  turned 
to  little  account  in  such  localities. 


14 


WILLARD  S    PRAOTICAL 


CAKE. 


The  success  of  butter  dairying  depends  so  much  upon 
the  care  and  feeding  of  the  stock  that  no  manual  on  but- 
ter making  would  be  complete  without  touching  upon 
this  branch  of  the  business.  It  is  really  astonishing  what 
a  large  difference  in  the  yield  of  milk  it  makes  by  attend- 
ing properly  to  a  number  of  small  things  in  the  manage- 
ment of  stock — things  which  would  seem  to  many  quite 
too  insignificant  to  be  worth  observing.  The  dairyman 
should  have  a  genuine,  hearty  love  for  the  animals  under 
his  control,  attending  to  every  detail  for  their  comfort, 
providing  wholesome,  nutritious  food,  pure  water  and 
pure  air — everything  of  this  kind  in  abundance — keeping 
the  animals  properly  sheltered  from  storms ;  feeding 
always  with  great  regularity ;  paying  the  most  marked 
attention  to  the  time  and  manner  ot  milking,  and  withal, 
preserving  a  uniform  kindness  and  gentleness  of  treat- 
ment throughout  every  operation,  a  gentleness  extending 
even  to  the  tones  ol  the  voice. 

Generally  speaking,  that  cow  will  do  her  best  that  is 
loved  the  best  and  petted  the  most  by  those  who  have  her 
in  charge.  If  you  wish  a  cow  to  do  her  best  you  must 
cultivate  her  acquaintance  intimately,  and  be  unsparing 
in  little  acts  of  kindness.  You  may  whip  and  torture  a 
cow  into  submission,  but  she  will  strike  the  balance 
against  you  i.i  the  milk  pail.  One  of  the  greatest  faults 
among  dairy  finners  to-day  is  lack  of  kindness  and  con- 
sideration to  domestic  aninj^als.  Cows  should  be  petted 
daily,  and  be  made  to  feel  that  man  is  a  friend  and  pro- 
tector. All  pain,  fright  and  uneasiness  checks  the  secre- 
tion of  milk,  and  the  man  Avho  is  passionate  and  abusive 
to  his  herd  never  did  and  never  can  realise  a  full  yield  of 
milk  from  it.  I  think  that  any  one  who  has  the  charge  of 
animals  should  study  their  character  and  disposition.  It 
is  an  interesting  study,  and,  under  the  law  of  kindness, 
you  will  not  unfrequently  bring  out  wonderful  traits  and 
exhibitions  of  affection,  which  will  show  aforethought  and 
design,  which  may  well  be  ranked  with  the  higher  intel- 
ligence of  reasonable  beings. 

QUESTIONS    FOR    DAIRYMEN. 

.    Every  dairyman  should  have  a  printed  list  of  questions 
posted  in  some  suitable  place  on  liis  premises  where  his 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


15 


family  and  those  in  his  employ,  as  well  as  his  visitors, 
will  have  opportunity  to  read  frequently.  We  give  some 
of  them,  but  the  list  can  be  extended : 

Do  your  cows  feed  in  swamps  and  on  boggy  lands  ? 

Have  you  good,  sweet  running  water  convenient  for 
stock,  and  is  it  abundant  and  permanent  in  hot,  dry 
weather  ? 

Have  you  shade  trees  in  your  pasture,  or  do  you  think 
that  cows  make  better  milk  while  lying  down  to  rest  in 
discomfort  in  the  hot  broiling  sun  ? 

Do  you  use  dogs  and  stones  to  hurry  up  the  cows  from 
pasture  at  milking  time,  thus  overheating  their  blood  and 
bruising  their  udders  ? 

Do  you  cleanse  the  udders  of  cows  before  milking  by 
washing  their  teats  with  their  own  milk,  and  practice 
further  economy  by  allowing  the  droppings  to  go  into  the 
milk  pail  ? 

Do  you  enjoin  upon  your  milkers  to  wash  their  hands 
thoroughly  before  sitting  down  to  milk,  or  do  you  think 
that  uncleanliness  in  this  respect  is  not  important  for  milk 
that  is  to  be  treated  for  butter-making  ? 

When  a  cow  makes  a  misstep  while  being  milked,  do 
you  allow  your  milkers  to  kick  her  with  heavy  boots,  or 
to  pound  her  over  the  back  and  sides  with  a  heavy  stool, 
accompanied  by  sundry  profane  remarks  addressed  to  the 
cow  to  teach  her  manners? 

Is  the  air  about  your  "  milk  barn  "  or  milk  house  reek- 
ing with  the  foul  emanations  of  the  pig  sty,  the  manure 
heap,  or  other  pestiferous  odors  ? 

Good,  fresh,  clean  water,  and  in  abundance,,  is  one  of  the 
most  important  requisites  for  milch  cows,  and  it  should  be 
in  convenient  places,  where  stock  will  not  be  required  to 
travel  long  distances  to  slake  their  thirst.  If  springs  and 
running  streams  cannot  be  had  in  pastures,  a  good  well, 
with  windmill  and  pump,  makes  an  efficient  substitute,  and 
the  Avaste  water  may,  if  necessary,  be  conducted  back  into 
the  well,  so  as  to  keep  up  a  constant  supply  of  good,  fresh 
water. 

BRIEF      SUMMARY     OF     ITEMS     IN     THE      MANAGEMENT     OF 
MILCH     cows. 

The  following  summary  of  items,  written  recently  by 
Mr.  A.  L.  Fish  of  Herkimer  County,  widely  known  as 


IQ  WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 

one  of  the  most  successful  practical  dairymen  of  New 
York,  gives  the  result  of  the  experience  of  his  life  in  the 
treatment  of  dairy  stock.     They  will  be  found  of  value  : 

THE    "  MILKING-HABIT  "    EDUCATED. 

All  profits  obtainable  from  tlie  cow  in  milk  depend 
upon  her  constitution  and  physical  economy  in  appropri- 
ating a  portion  of  her  food  to  thrift  and  milk.  Her  fac- 
ulty of  appropriation  is  developed  and  fixed  in  the  con- 
stitution by  usage  and  habit.  In  her  wild,  uncultivated 
state  she  yields  a  small  amount  of  milk  to  sustain  her  calf 
till  its  second  and  third  stomachs  are  sufticiently  devel- 
oped to  digest  plant  food,  when  she  weans  it  by  instinct, 
and  her  milk  ceases  to  flow.  Any  deviation  from  that 
habit  must  be  developed  by  incessant  milking  and  proper 
adaptation  of  food  to  make  a  supply  of  milk  proportion- 
ate to  the  demand.  Thus  it  is  upon  the  principle  of  de- 
mand and  supply  that  her  faculties  are  educated  to  a  high 
degree  of  fluency  in  milk.  If  cows  are  milked  in  cold 
weather,  they  should  be  housed  and  kept  comfortably 
warm,  that  their  vital  forces  may  be  employed  to  convert 
food  into  milk  rich  in  cream,  instead  of  the  fatty  portions 
being  used  up  by  combustion  to  keep  the  animal  heat  of 
the  body  at  the  required  temperature  (98  degrees),  the 
point  fixed  in  her  physical  organism  for  health. 

If  she  is  unaccustomed  to  higher  feed  than  hay,  a 
change  must  be  carefully  made  with  light  feeding,  gradu- 
ally increasing  as  the  system  becomes  inured  to  it.  Her 
digestive  organs  require  systematic  training  like  the  mus- 
cles of  the  pugilist  or  race-horse.  A  proper  adaptation  of 
food  to  the  lacteal  system  is  first  in  tlie  order  of  training. 
Succulent  food  is  better  adapted  to  lactescencethan  grain. 
If  grain  is  fed  in  the  milk  season,  it  should  be  cooked  and 
made  into  thin  slop  or  porridge,  that  it  may  readily  as- 
similate wnth  the  lacteal  fluids  of  the  system.  So  suscep- 
tible are  the  lacteal  faculties  of  cultivation,  that  heifers 
from  deep-milking  mothers  have  been  brought  to  a  good 
flow  of  milk  under  two  years  old,  without  impregnation,  by 
continued  usage  of  the  udder  and  teats  like  milking  hab- 
its. It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  feeding  more  than  is 
appropriated  to  the  object  desired  goes  to  w^aste  by  pass- 
ing off  imperfectly-digested  or  being  taken  up  by  other 
than  the  lacteal  functions.     It,  therefore,  behooves  all  who 


BUTTER    BOOK.  17 

keep  cows  for  dairy  or  family  use  to  closely  observe  the 
effect  of  various  kinds  of  food,  as  some  will  appropriate 
to  a  different  purpose  than  others,  by  force  of  habit. 

DOCILITY    OF   TEMPER HOW    ACQUIRED. 

Docility  of  temper,  like  lactescence,  may  be  cultivated 
and  established  constitutionally,  and  is  as  surely  transmis- 
sible to  posterity  as  color,  size,  shape,  &c.  Uniform  kind- 
ness in  handling,  in  care  and  general  treatment,  with  easy 
access  to  good  water,  good  feed  and  good  fences,  are  es- 
sential to  confirm  docile  habits.  Adversely  will  detesta- 
able  habits  be  confirmed.  Harsh,  scarey  treatment  in 
handling,  hurrying  them  out  of  narrow  stanchions,  to 
pinch  and  bruise  their  ears,  tear  off  a  horn  or  break  a 
neck  (each  of  which  I  have  had  done),  poor  feed,  poor 
fences,  scanty  water,  and  poor  milkers,  are  appliances  to 
fit  a  cow  to  graduate,  Avhere  she  may  be  turned  into  a 
drove  and  sold  among  strangers. 

JERKING    OUT    OF   THE    STANCHION. 

To  prevent  cows  from  acquiring  a  habit  of  jerking  back 
out  of  the  stanchion  (by  which  they  are  liable  to  be  seri- 
ously injured),  set  them  on  a  slant  toward  the  falling 
sides,  so  they  will  fall  back  quickly  from  their  neck  by 
their  own  gravity  as  the  latch  is  raised  to  release  them, 
and  let  the  drop  bar  fall  back  wide  enough  that  the  horns 
will  not  catch  on  backing  out. 

WATER     NEEDED    AFTER    SALTING. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  they  have  salt  twice  a  week, 
and  that  they  have  access  to  water  soon  after  taking  the 
salt,  because  salt  in  its  crude  state  is  poisonous  and  will 
create  a  high  fever  in  the  stomach,  unless  diluted  by 
water,  which  relieves  the  animal  from  burning  thirst. 

BREATHING   FOUL   AIR. 

It  is  becoming  a  universal  custom  to  milk,  through  the 
season  in  wintering  stables  that  are  constructed  to  econo- 
mize room  and  keep  the  inmates  warm.  That  is  all  right 
in  economy  if  not  carried  too  far.  If  too  many  are 
crowded  into  illy-ventilated  apartments  the  air  becomes 
vitiated  and  unfit  for  respiration,  because  it  is  breathed 
over  and  over  again  after  it  has  passed  through  the  Inngs 
and  been  robbed  of  its  vital  power.  Food  once  taken  into 
the  stomach  and  passed  through  the  digestive  organs  is 


•18 


WILLARD'S    PRACTICAL 


repugnant  to  all  animals,  and  if  forced  into  the  stomach 
will  cause  disease  and  death.  It  is  a  fact  not  to  be  ig- 
nored that  animals  and  insects  whose  life  is  sustained  by 
inhaling  the  common  atmosphere,  must  have  a  change  of 
air  or  death  ensues.  If  stables  are  not  tight  enough  to 
cause  immediate  death,  they  may  weaken  tlie  vital  forces 
of  the  inmates  and  thus  predispose  them  to  disease. 

RESULT    OF     CROWDIXG    TOO    CLOSE    IN    THE    STABLE. 

If  COWS  are  packed  too  closely  in  stanchions  they  will 
lie  against  each  other  and  get  too  warm ;  then  when 
turned  out  in  very  cold  weather  the  change  is  too  great, 
and  Avhen  lying  down  to  rest  the  center  cow  (of  three)  is 
often  compelled  to  stand  till  others  rise,  and  they  are 
irritated  by  each  others'  horns.  All  these  are  annoyances 
that  tell  upon  their  constitution,  but  they  may  be  avoided 
by  giving  each  cow  four  feet  wide  standing  room,  and 
addmuch  to  convenience  in  milking. 

VENTILATION. 

Proper  ventilation  is  indispensable  to  health  of  cows 
both  summer  and  winter,  and  to  cleanliness  in  milking. 
If  stables  are  without  ample  openings  over  the  cows' 
heads,  the  pressure  of  air  from  without  drives  the  noxious 
odors  from  their  voidings,  and  the  venomous  exhalation, 
perhaps  from  old  stale  urine  under  loose,  squashy  floors, 
forward  to  their  heads,  where  they  are  compelled  to  inhale 
them.  Such  stables  are  unfit  to  milk  in  because  the  milk 
while  milking  w' ill  imbibe  those  odors  and  unfit  it  for  good 
cheese  or  butter.  From  my  observations  in  searching  for 
causes  of  the  ailments  that  cows  are  liable  to,  I  have  come 
to  the  conclusion  that  more  disease  is  generated  by  veno- 
mous atmosphere  in  damp,  ill-ventilated  stables  than  all 
other  causes.  As  a  preventive  I  would  advise  that  the 
floor  of  the  stable  be  laid  upon  a  solid  bed  of  earth  and 
gravel,  with  a  fall  of  six  inches  in  twelve  feet  from  the 
stanchions,  with  the  same  ratio  of  descent,  to  a  point  for 
outlet  of  liquids,  with  a  platform  raised  six  inches  for 
cows  to  stand  and  lie  on.  The  floor  and  platform  plank 
should  be  bedded  in  water-lime  mortar,  so  there  shall  be 
no  soaking  dow^n  nor  hiding-place  for  stale  urine  to  deposit 
and  generate  venomous  odors. 

Openings  in  the  sides  of  stables  are  useful  in  warm, 
still  weather,  and  to  dry  and  cleanse  them,  but  should  not 


BUTTER    BOOK.  19 

be  relied  on  for  breathing  air,  for  they  should  be  closed  in 
severe  weather  to  prevent  currents  of  air  striking  the  in- 
mates, which  should  always  be  avoided.  An  opening 
forward  and  over  their  heads  large  enough  to  fodder 
through  the  whole  length  ot  the  stable  is  little  room 
enough  for  circulation  ot  breathing  air,  and  would  not 
draw  through  in  currents  unless  the  siding  is  open  below 
and  too  airy  above. 

WATER. 

Cows  will  drink  twice  a  day  and  oftener  if  an  oppor- 
tunity is  offered,  and  it  is  better  than  to  drink  a  large 
amount  at  once.  If  cows  in  milk  have  water  but  once, 
they  should  be  slopped  morning  and  evening  to  increase 
the  flow  of  milk. 

FIRST   TURNING   TO    GRASS. 

Cows  should  not  be  allowed  a  full  range  of  pasture  till 
there  is  a  supply  of  grass,  because  they  will  acquire  a  rov- 
ing habit,  and  their  unnecessary  travel  will  pack  the  soil 
and  destroy  much  grass.  When  first  turned  to  grass 
they  should  be  allowed  only  a  limited  range  between  the 
usual  hours  of  feeding  hay.  This  hay  feed,  of  the  first 
quality,  should  be  continued  till  they  refuse  to  eat  it. 
This  keeps-  up  their  strength  and  avoids  too  sudden 
change  in  the  habits  of  digestion. 

CLEANSING   THE    BLOOD. 

After  parturition,  one  table  spoon  full  of  sulphur  should 
be  given  to  each  cow  twice  a  week,  to  cleanse  the  blood 
of  any  impurities  that  may  he  larking  in  the  system 
which  are  liable  to  settle  upon  different  organs,  causing 
garget,  horn-ail,  hoof-ail,  or  a  morbid  condition  of  the 
generative  organs,  by  reason  of  which  many  cows  go  far- 
row, or  are  predisposed  to  abortion. 

SALTPETER   FOR    GARGET. 

If  symptoms  ot  garget  appear,  one  tea  spoon  of  salt- 
peter once  a  week  is  good.  When  the  season  arrives  for 
turning  with  the  bull,  this  should  be  discontinued.  Salt 
three  mornings  and  skip  three  for  two  weeks. 

COMING    IN   MILK. 

To  bring  them  into  milk  nearly  the  same  time  the  next 
season,  cows  should  not  be  alloAved  to  worry  with  other 
cattle  after  being  turned  with  the  bull. 


2Q  WILLARD  S    PRACTICAL 

GRAIN    FEEDING    AND    GRASS. 

No  profit  will  accrue  from  grain  feed  in  flush  of  grass 
feed.  When  it  dinnnishes,  its  equivalent  should  be  kept 
up  by  soiling  or  otherwise,  for  if  the  flow  of  milk  is  al- 
lowed to  decrease  to  a  great  extent,  extra  feed  late  in  the 
season  will  be  appropriated  to  flesh  instead  of  milk. 

If  cows  are  to  be  turned  into  clover,  it  should  be  done 
after  the  sun  has  aided  the  plant  to  elaborate  the  gases 
of  night-fall. 

REMEDY    FOR    HOVEN. 

In  case  of  hoven,  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  sod'a  dis- 
solved in  a  gallon  of  water,  and  poured  down  is  an  ef- 
fectual remedy.  Shoifld  the  case  be  severe  and  require 
instant  relief,  plunge  a  butcher  knife  into  the  paunch  on 
the  left  side  behind  the  last  rib  near  the  back,  at  the 
point  where  the  paunch  adheres  to  the  back  and  ribs. 
There  is  no  danger  in  opening  the  paunch  there,  because 
it  would  not  let  its  contents  out  into  the  body.  Keep  the 
hole  open  with  an  alder,  quill,  or  hollow  stick,  secured 
from  dropping  into  the  paunch,  till  the  medicine  in  the 
stomach  takes  effect.  Hoven  is  often  mistaken  for  chok- 
ing. If  a  choke  can  not  be  felt  in  the  meat  pipe,  it  may 
be  determined  by  crowding  a  "tarred"  rope,  one  and  a 
half  inch  in  diameter,  down  the  creature's  throat.  Such  a 
rope,  four  feet  long,  with  a  sailor's  wall  knot  on  each  end 
to  crowd  against  the  obstacle  in  the  throat,  should  be  pos- 
sessed by  every  farmer  owning  a  herd  of  cattle.  Any 
vegetable  that  a  creature  can  swallow  into  the  meat  pipe 
may  be  pushed  into  the  stomach  with  such  a  rope  with 
safety,  after  pouring  down  a  pint  of  soft  soap. 

In  closing  my  remarks  on  the  care  and  treatment  of 
milch  stock  I  cannot  do  better  than  present  some  facts  in 
regard  to — 

THE    EFFECTS    PRODUCED    ON   THE    MILK    FROM 
ILL-TREATMENT    OF    COWS. 

It  is  only  quite  recently  that  the  subject  of  milk  poison 
lias  begun  to  claim  attention.  Farmers  and  dairymen 
are  for  the  most  part  incredulous  concerning  changes 
liable  to  be  wrought  in  milk,  as  a  consequence  of  the 
manner  in  which  stock  is  treated.  If  a  farmer  beats  or 
otherwise   maltreats   his   cows,  he   may  perhaps   admit, 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


21 


when  his  passion  has  become  sobered,  that  the  animals, 
under  bad  treatment,  will  yield  a  diminished  quantity  of 
milk  ;  but  that  the  milk  from  this  cause  is  rendered  less 
nutritious,  or  is  so  changed  as  not  to  be  a  healthful  ar- 
ticle of  human  food,  is  regarded  as  preposterous. 

No  greater  service,  it  seems  to  me,  can  be  done  for  the 
dairy  public,  or  for  the  community  at  large,  than  to  dis- 
seminate correct  information  in  regard  to  the  various 
causes  affecting  the  healthfulness  of  milk.  And  I  am  glad 
to  see  that  the  subject  is  arresting  the  attention  of  medical 
men,  because  when  they  give  the  result  of  their  investi- 
gation on  questions  of  this  character  it  carries  with  it  the 
weight  of  authority  and  is  more  readily  believed  than 
when  it  originates  from  other  sources. 

We  cannot  expect  a  change  of  practice  or  reform  unless 
men  are  convinced  of  their  errors.  A  mere  statement  of 
facts,  if  they  do  not  carry  conviction  to  the  mind,  will 
effect  but  little ;  hence,  in  presenting  the  following  account 
of  the  diseases  resulting  from  the  use  of  imperfect  milk 
and  the  causes  which  led  to  its  imperfection,  I  am  glad  to 
present  the  subject  from  a  medical  stand-point,  or  as  com- 
ing under  the  experience  of  a  well  known  practitioner  of 
medicine.  The  facts  given  I  have  condensed  from  an 
article  in  a  late  number  or  the  "  Medical  and  Surgical 
Reporter,"  by  Dr.  T.  D.  Crothers  of  Albany,  N.  Y. 

The  latter  part  of  October,  1874,  and  since  the  publi- 
cation of  the  article  referred  to,  I  had  an  interview  with 
Dr.  Crothers  and  obtained  from  him  many  of  the  cir- 
cumstances connected  Avith  his  investigations,  and  I  am 
of  the  opinion  that  the  conclusions  arrived  at  by  him  are 
substantially  correct.  Indeed,  they  correspond  with  facts 
coming  under  my  own  observation  and  exi)erience. 

DISEASED    MILK    CAUSED    BY    FILTHY    STABLES 
AND    ROTTEN    VEGETABLES. 

Referring  to  the  almost  universal  use  of  milk  as  a  diet, 
and  the  many  cases  reported  during  the  last  year,  which 
give  strong  evidence  that  milk  is  an  agent  of  far  greater 
danger  and  more  widely  diffused  as  a  source  of  disease 
than  we  are  aware  of.  Dr.  Crothers  describes  a  severe 
case  of  diarrhea  occurring  in  a  healthy  family  and  living 
in  good  hygienic  surroundings.  Called  to  prescribe  for 
the  sufferers,  he  found  that  the  family  had  never  suffered 


22  WILLARD'S    PRACTICAL 

from  this  disease  before,  and  it  seemed  more  violent  among 
the  younger  members  than  in  those  grown  up.  A  careful 
inquiry  into  the  habits  of  this  family  indicated  nothing 
miusual,  except  the  free  use  of  milk  as  an  article  of  food. 
Sunday,  milk  was  made  a  prominent  dish  at  dinner,  and 
it  Avas  noticed  that  the  days  following  the  disease  was 
increased  unless  checked  by  medicines.  The  milk  came 
from  one  cow  kept  in  the  neighborhood.  Suspecting  the 
milk  was  not  all  right,  Dr.  C.  found  on  visiting  the  stable 
that  the  cow  was  a  small,  ill-conditioned  animal,  standing 
in  a  close,  filthy  stable,  ill-ventilated  and  containing  hardly 
room  enough  to  turn  about.  Tlie  food  of  this  cow  was 
garbage  from  the  street,  consisting  of  vegetables  in  all 
degrees  of  decomposition,  cooked  and  raw,  alternated 
with  brewers'  grains  once  per  day.  Water  was  given  in 
the  food,  but  occasionally,  depending  on  chance,  a  pail 
was  brought  in.  The  stable  was  cleaned  once  or  twice  a 
week,  and  the  doors  were  closed  to  keep  in  some  hens. 
The  walls  of  the  building  were  brick,  and  the  ventilation 
or  renewal  of  the  air  must  come  from  the  open  seams  in 
the  door  and  window.  In  this  place  for  over  three  months 
this  cow  had  been  confined,  her  body  was  filthy  and  her 
hair  stood  up  in  all  directions.  That  the  milk  was  impure 
and  the  cause  of  the  diarrhea  was  j^roven  by  the  complete 
disappearance  of  the  disease  when  the  family  stopped 
using  the  milk. 

THE    NATURE    OP   THE    POISON   UNCERTAIN. 

Dr.  Crothers  thinks  the  nature  of  the  poison  is  uncer- 
tain, and  he  refers  to  the  investigations  of  Dr.  Chandler 
of  New  York,  who  failed  to  find  any  specific  poison  in 
milk  known  to  be  impure.  In  this  case  the  impure  milk 
acted  as  an  irritant,  causing  a  low  grade  of  inflammation 
— a  certain  forerunner  of  other  lesions. 

DEATH   PROM    USING    IMPURE    MILK. 

This  was  the  case  of  an  elderly  gentleman,  previously 
well  and  strong,  who,  while  convalescing  from  a  severe  at- 
tack of  intermittent  fever  was  ordered  to  use  milk  freely 
by  his  physician.  Four  days  after  lie  began  to  use  milk  as  a 
medicine,  he  was  attacked  with  exhaustive  diarrhea,  re- 
sisting all  medicines  and  terminating  fatally  in  six  days. 
The  familv  of  the  owner  of  the  cow  from  which  the  milk 


BUTTER   BOOK.  23 

was  furnished  likewise  suffered  from  diarrhea.  The  cow 
was  kept  in  a  similar  way  to  that  first  described ;  and 
when  this  cow  was  turned  out  in  the  yard  and  received 
better  food  and  more  cleanly  surroundings,  the  diarrhea 
in  the  family  disappeared.  Another  severe  case  of  the 
same  complaint  was  noticed  in  a  middle-aged  man  using 
the  milk  of  swill-fed  cows.  The  disease  terminated  in 
death  after  four  weeks. 

INFLUENCE    OF    INSUFFICIENT   FOOD    ON   MILK. 

Some  remarkable  experiments  on  this  subject  were  con- 
ducted by  M.  Decaisne  of  Paris,  during  the  siege  of 
1871,  and  detailed  in  a  paper  before  the  French  Academy, 
prefacing  his  paper  with  observations  of  Dumas,  Payen 
and  BoussiNGAULT,  in  which  were  shown  the  fact  that  a 
cow  gave  healthy  milk  in  exact  proportion  to  the  surplus 
of  food  beyond  what  was  necessary  for  its  own  maintain- 
ance.  If  the  animal  was  kept  upon  food  barely  sufficient 
for  proper  nourishment,  the  milk  produced  must  be  at  a 
loss  of  animal  tissue,  with  general  deterioration  of  the 
milk  and  also  of  the  cow.  Milk  formed  at  an  expense  of 
the  nutrients  and  tissues  of  the  body  has  less  caseine,  but- 
ter, sugar  and  salts,  while  the  albumen  will  be  increased. 
It  follows  that  the  value  of  milk  must  dej^end  upon  the 
excess  of  food  beyond  what  is  required  by  nature  to  keep 
up  the  normal  vigor  of  the  body. 

Decaisne  shows  that  nearly  an  analogous  condition 
exists  in  women,  which  he  demonstrated  by  experiments 
during  the  siege  of  1871,  in  43  cases  of  nursing  women. 
These  cases  were  in  private  families  and  suffered  from 
the  want  of  insufficient  nourishment.  Some  of  the  results 
of  his  observations  are  stated  thus : 

Insufficient  food  always  produces  a  diminution  in  the 
normal  quality  of  the  milk,  also  a  variation  of  its  chemical 
constituents,  such  as  an  increase  of  albumen  and  diminu- 
tion of  caseine,  butter  and  sugar.  The  proportion  of 
albumen,  in  such  cases,  is  generally  in  inverse  ratio  to 
that  of  caseine.  The  health  of  the  mother  declined  with 
this  variation  in  the  quality  of  milk,  depending  upon  age, 
hygienic  conditions,  constitutional  vigor,  &c.,  until  the 
milk  became  minimum  in  quantity  and  quality.  Also, 
that  these  effects  are  seen  in  four  or  five  days  from  the 
time  of  using  an  insufficient  diet. 


24 


WILLARD'S    PHACTICAL 


TYPHOID     FEVER    GERMS    COMMUNICATED    THROUGH    MILK. 

An  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever  which  occurred  near 
Glasgow,  Scotland,  in  1872-3,  indicated  the  prevalence  of 
this  fever  in  32  out  of  39  families  which  were  supplied 
with  milk  from  one  dairyman.  Families  supplied  by 
other  milkmen  were  singularly  exempt.  The  family  of 
the  dairyman  were  also  attacked,  particularly  those  who 
had  used  the  largest  amount  of  milk.  The  fever  germs 
were  supposed  to  have  been  propagated  through  adulter- 
ating the  milk  w^ith  bad  water,  and  probably  by  allowing 
or  forcing  the  cows  to  slake  thirst  from  impure  water. 

Again,  in  one  of  the  healthiest  suburban  sections  of 
London,  500  cases  of  typhoid  fever  were  found  distributed 
in  104  families,  96  of  w^hich  were  supplied  with  milk  from 
one  dairy.  The  contagion  was  traced  directly  to  the 
water  used  for  \vashing  the  milk  cans  and  retained  in  the 
milk,  the  w^ater  being  previously  polluted  by  sewer 
drainage. 

MILK    POISONED    BY    ANIMALCULE. 

Cases  marked  by  violent  cramping  and  purging  have 
been  traced  to  the  milk  used,  w^hich  was  found  to  contain 
animalcule,  supposed  to  be  taken  up  in  the  drinking  water 
and  developed  in  the  system.  Dr.  Brown,  of  Gault, 
Ontario,  reports  in  the  Canada  Lancet  two  very  striking 
oases  of  this  kind.  Yogle,  years  ago,  showed  that  vibri- 
ones  in  human  milk  arose  from  a  condition  of  mal-nutri- 
tion.  Dr.  Gibbs  found  two  genera  of  animalculfe  present 
in  milk,  when  the  health  of  the  mother  was  disordered  by 
prolonged  lactation.  Other  authorities  have  shown  that 
milk  may  contain  animalculse  as  w^ell  as  poisonous  germs 
equally  dangerous. 

MILK    POISONED    FROM    VIOLENT    EMOTIONS    OR    SHOCKS    OF 
THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

A  familiar  illustration  is  that  of  milk,  when  the  mother 
is  violently  agitated,  causing  convulsions  and  death  in  the 
child.  The  text  books  give  particular  caution  on  this 
point ;  yet  an  hour  after,  when  the  emotions  have  sub- 
sided, the  peril  seems  to  have  passed  away.  We  are  yet 
ignorant  of  the  nature  of  this  poison,  which  seems  to  have 
such  a  peculiar  action  on  tbe  nervous  function.  Dr.  Cro- 
THERS  instances  a  case  at  a  late  clinic  at  the  Albany  Hos- 


BUTTER    BOOK.  25 

pital,  of  a  child  six  years  old  suffering  from  epilepsy.  The 
history  indicated  that  the  chikl  was  in  health  up  to  a  cer- 
tain, time  when  the  motiier,  laboring  under  intense  excite- 
ment, put  the  cliild  to  her  breast ;  soon  after  the  con- 
vulsions came  on,  which  developed  into  a  full  case  of 
epilepsy. 

A  case  of  chorea  recently,  under  Dr.  C/s  care,  he  says 
can  be  traced  back  to  nursing  the  child  when  the  mother 
was  violently  excited.  Other  cases  have  b^en  noted  of 
feeble  and  broken-down  nervous  systems  in  children, 
Avhich  were  referred  back  to  the  same  cause. 

HOW   BRUTAL     TREATMENT     OF    COWS   AFFECTS   THE   MILK. 

A  gentleman  of  Albany  was  advised  to  secure  the  milk 
of  a  young,  blooded  cow  for  his  infant  child.  A  cow 
whose  first  calf  was  running  by  her  side  was  purchased, 
and  the  calf  taken  away,  and  liis  servant  was  ordered  to 
milk  her,  bringing  the  milk  direct  to  his  house.  Two 
months  later  this  child,  who  was  previously  healthy,  was 
broken  out  over  the  body  with  a  strange,  undelinable 
rash,  which  finally  developed  into  pustules,  called  by  the 
physician  scrofula.  Following  this  came  a  fever,  which 
seemed  to  affect  the  brain  and  nervous  system.  In  the 
meantime,  the  bowels  suffered  from  intestinal  irritation, 
alternately  constipated  and  relaxed.  The  child,  for  a 
year  or  more,  while  using  the  milk,  was  under  the  con- 
stant care  of  physicians,  and  after  the  second  year  had  a 
weak,  broken-down  nervous  system,  with  frequent  pus- 
tular eruptions  over  the  body. 

Subsequently  it  was  ascertained  that  this  cow  was 
driven  into  a  close  stall,  and  whipped  into  subjection,  to 
allow  the  milking  to  go  on,  and,  for  the  entire  season, 
this  process  w^as  one  of  force  and  more  or  less  brutality. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  milk  was  made  poisonous 
by  the  nervous  condition  of  the  cow. 

Another  instance  came  under  the  observation  of  Dr. 
Crothers.  It  was  that  of  a  farmer  who,  by  the  advice 
of  his  physician,  procured  the  milk  of  an  Alderney  cow, 
on  account  of  its  supposed  richness.  This  cow,  from  her 
vicious  habits,  had  been  considered  unfit  for  the  dairy. 
The  milking  was  attended  with  much  excitement,  and  the 
child  to  whom  the  milk  was  given  suffered  from  gastro- 
intestinal irritation  and  what  were  called  scrofulous  ulcers. 


2(5  WILLARD  S    PRACTICAL 

during  all  the  time  of  using  the  milk.  Two  years  later 
this  child  was  presented  at  the  Albany  Hospital  clinic 
with  symptoms  of  chorea,  a  weak  nervous  system,  and 
low  tone  of  physical  vigor — an  exception  to  other  chil- 
dren of  tlie  same  family.  Other  cases  are  given  of  seri- 
ous diseases  arising  from  the  use  of  milk  from  cows 
brutally  treated. 

IMPORTANT    CONSIDERATIOXS    IN   THE    CARE    OF    STOCK. 

Dr.  Crothers,  from  all  the  facts  observed,  comes  to  a 
series  of  conclusions,  some  of  which  we  give  as  follows  : 
1.  Milk  coming  from  ill-nourished,  half-fed  cows,  having 
no  surplus  of  food  beyond  minimum  requirements  of 
nature,  is  injurious,  and  may  be  a  source  of  disease.  2. 
Cows  deprived  of  abundance  of  good  water,  ventilation 
and  exercise,  secrete  impure  and  dangerous  milk,  which 
may  be  loaded  with  gases,  animalcul^e  and  fever  germs. 
3.  The  milk  from  old,  debilitated  cows  fed  on  grains  or 
over-stimulating  food  is  also  imperfect  and  unhealthy  to 
a  variable  degree.  4.  The  nervous  condition  of  the  cow 
at  the  time  of  milking  determines  the  purity  of  the  milk. 
If  this  is  neglected,  the  milk  is  an  active  source  of  dis- 
ease, positively  dangerous  and  fatal. 

In  conclusion,  he  says  that  facts  show  that  milk  is  the 
prolific  source  of  many  diseases  now  obscure,  and  unless 
careful  inquiry  is  made  into  the  condition  and  surround- 
ings from  which  we  receive  our  supply,  we  neglect  a 
sanitary  measure  of  great  importance. 

I  should  be  glad  to  have  every  dairyman  in  the  land 
read  this  statement  and  consider  how  lar  the  facts  herein 
given  will  apply,  to  cases  coming  under  his  observation 
or  experience.  The  questions  presented,  it  seems  to  me, 
are  of  grave  importance. 

FEEDING. 

Different  kinds  of  food  have  more  or  less  influence  on 
the  flavor  of  milk.  Some  kinds  are  much  more  eflicient 
than  others,  not  only  in  promoting  good  flavor  in  the 
milk,  but  in  maintaining  health  and  thrift  in  the  animal. 
For  butter-making  it  is  essential  that  the  cows  have  an 
abundance  of  rich  and  nutritious  food.  Cows  giving  milk 
require  more  food  than  when  not  in  milk.  A  certain 
amount  of  food   is  needed  to  support  the  animal,  and  a 


BUTTER  BOOK.  27 

surplus  above  that  must  be  consumed  and  assimilated  to 
make  milk.  P'ood  should  be  abundant  and  easy  of  ac- 
cess because  much  traveling  or  exercise  in  obtaining  it 
checks  the  milk  secretion,  tlie  food  going  to  supply  the 
waste  of  tissue  lost  in  extra  labor  rather  than  for  milk. 
Cows  should  always  be  kept  in  good  flesh  and  condition, 
because,  if  from  inclement  weather  or  other  causes  there 
be  a  slight  interruption  in  the  usual  quantity  of  food,  the 
good-conditioned  cow  has  a  store  of  fat  laid  up  in  the 
system  that  will  bridge  over  these  short  periods  without 
feeling  the  loss  so  sensibly  as  the  cow  thin  in  Hesli,  which 
has  no  surplus  fat  to  spare. 

I  know  of  no  better  food  for  milch  cows  than  rich,  old 
upland  pastures,  where  there  is  a  variety  of  grasses,  and 
the  turf  is  tliickly  set  with  grass,  showing  no  intervening 
spaces.  Ricli  old  pastures,  clear  of  weeds,  where  the 
herbage  is  thick,  sweet  and  nutritious — where  a  cow  can 
get  her  fill  without  much  labor — where  good,  sweet 
water  is  convenient — where  there  is  shade  under  which 
she  can  rest  and  ruminate  these,  in  my  opinion,  will 
be  about  the  best  conditions  in  which  t'he  animal  can  be 
placed  for  yielding  much  and  very  fine  butter.  Under 
such  circumstances  I  do  not  think  any  profit  will  be  real- 
ized by  feeding  ground  grain,  or  meal  of  any  kind,  as  a 
supplementary  food.  There  is  a  great  difference  in  pas- 
turage, and  the  trouble  with  dairymen  is,  that  they  do 
not  discrhninate  closely  enough  as  to  the  quality  of  the 
grasses  that  make  up  the  pastures  on  different  farms. 

The  coarse,  sour  herbage  of  low  lands  or  swales — 
pastures  foul  with  weeds  or  abounding  in  grasses  having 
a  large  percentage  of  woody  fiber  are  not  calculated  to 
give  satisfactory  returns.  And  in  all  cases  where  pastures 
have  depreciated,  and  afford  a  scanty  supply  of  nutriment, 
they  should  be  supplemented  by  giving  the  cows  a  daily 
ration  of  bran,  ground  oats,  or  some  other  food,  to  sup- 
ply the  deficiency. 

VARIETIES     ESTEEMED    FOR    BUTTE R-DAIRYIXG. 

On  the  old  pastures  of  the  best  butter  districts  there 
are  several  varieties  of  grasses  that  spring  up  spontane- 
ously, and  are  much  esteemed  as  affording  sweet  and 
nutritious  feed,  and  from  which  the  best  qualities  of  milk 
and  butter  are  produced.     They  embrace  the  June   or 


28  WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 

Kentircky  blue  grass  {poa  2)yatensls),  the  foul  meadow 
grass,  {2)oa  serotlna),  meadow  fescue  {festuca  pratensis)^ 
red  top  (agrostis  vulgaris),  the  Avire  grass  [pjoa  com- 
pressa),  the  sweet-scented  vernal  and  v.-inilla  grass,  or- 
chard grass  (dactylis  glomerata),  together  Mith  timothy, 
clover,  and  other  forage  plants. 

The  June  grass  is  regai-ded  as  very  valuable ;  it 
throws  out  a  dense  mass  of  leaves,  is  higidy  relished  by 
cattle,  and  produces  milk  from  which  a  superior  quality 
of  butter  is  made.  It  is  found  grooving  throughout 
the  butter  districts  of  the  country. 

The  Wire  grass  is  deemed  one  of  the  most  nutritious 
of  the  grasses,  is  very  hardy,  eagerly  sought  after  by 
cattle,  and  is  one  of  the  best  grasses  for  fiittening.  Cows 
feeding  upon  it  yield  milk  of  the  I'ichest  quality,  from 
which  the  nicest  butter  is  made.  It  flourishes  well  upon 
gravelly  knolls  and  in  shady  places,  and  its  stem  is  green 
after  the  seed  has  ripened. 

The  Meadow  fescue  is  common  in  old  grass  lands 
where  the  sod  is  thick,  and  grasses  of  different  varieties 
are  mingled  together.  It  starts  up  early  in  the  spring,  is 
relished  by  stock  and  furnishes  good,  early  feed.  The 
milk  farmers  hold  it  in  high  estimation  as  a  reliable  grass, 
tenacious  of  life  and  not  running  out  like  timothy  or 
clover.  The  white  clo^'er  springs  up  spontaneously  in 
the  old  pastures,  and  is  esteemed  as  giving  flavor  and 
quality  to  butter. 

The  sweet-scented  vernal  grass  groMs  best  upon  moist 
soil  of  old  meadows.  It  starts  very  early  :md  gives  oft* 
an  agreeable  odor. 

Orchard  grass  is  one  of  the  earliest  as  well  as  most 
nutritious  and  productive  grasses.  It  is  exceedingly 
palatable  to  stock  of  all  kinds,  and  bears  cropping  close. 
It  is  a  most  valuable  grass,  and  should  enter  largely  into 
all  mixtures  intended  for  permanent  pasture. 

Mr.  Daniel  Bachelor  of  Utica,  X.  Y.,  Avho  has  had  con- 
siderable experience  in  introducing  the  best  mixtures  of 
grasses,  both  for  pasture  and  meadow,  says  of  the  sev- 
eral pasture  grasses  for  our  climate  :  '^  I  know  of  nothing 
better  than  our  native  June  and  orchard  grasses  mixed 
with  bent  grass,  ci'ested  dog's-tail-and  meadow  fescue; 
1      1— ".-1t^  "-.^.:^f^t;  that  we  Avant,  and 


BUTTER    BOOE.  29 

called  which  are  cultivated  in  England,  and  used  like  the 
grasses,  there  are  many  kinds— annual,  biennial  and  per- 
ennial, legumes  and  brassica,  some  of  which  are  not 
hardv  enough  for  our  climate.  Lotus,  sainfoin,  parsley, 
saradella  and  yarrow  cannot  be  successfully  grown  here. 
Rape,  mustard,  lucerne  and  vetches  can  be  grown  here  as 
easily  as  clover.  But  at  the  head  of  all  leguminous  plants 
stands  the  alfalfa  or  lu-jerne,  which  is  destined,  1  believe, 
to  greater  success  in  this  country  than  the  red  clover,  es- 
pecially in  the  hot,  dry  soils  of  the  West  and  Southwest; 
as  it  will  withstand  drouth  and  heat,  look  fresh  and  green 
Avhen  all  other  forage  plants  arc  dry  and  droopins:.  Lu- 
cerne has  been  known  to  old  world  agriculture  for  the  last 
two  tliousand  years,  and  perhaps  longer  than  that.  It  is 
a  hardy,  herbaceous  pei-ennial,  and  will  send  down  its  long 
roots  into  mellow  subsoil  to  a  depth  of  ten  or  twelve 
feet.  It  is  very  tenacious  and  will  take  possession  of  the 
soil  to  the  exclusion  of  all  the  grasses  and  herbaceous 
plants.  Notwithstanding  the  large  amount  of  forage  it 
produces,  the  lucerne  does  not  exhaust  but  improves  the 
soil,  for  tlie  legummosce  draw  almost  their  entire  nutri- 
tion from  the  atmosphere,  and  the  lucerne  produces  ten 
times  more  roots  than  any  of  the  clovers.  Vast  masses 
of  these  roots  decay  in  the  soil  every  season,  thereby  en- 
riching the  land.  The  plant,  too,  is  so  dense  that  it 
shades  the  soil.  That  lucerne  will  flourish  in  this  region 
(Central  New  York)  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  Messrs. 
Walcott  &  Campbell  have  grown  it  for  many  seasons  and 
prefer  it  to  any  other  forage  plant. 

''  I  take  theliberty,  in  conclusion,  to  say  that  no  matter 
what  seed  is  sown,  miless  the  soil  be  kept  in  good  heart 
both  pasture  and  meadow  will  fail.  Johnston  shows  that 
for  every  tonof  liay  carried  off  the  farm,  there  goes  with 
it  not  less  than  one  hundred  and  forty  pounds  of  silicates, 
phosphates  and  potash.  Now,  if  these  ingredients  are 
not  returned  in  some  shape  to  the  land,  the  crops  will 
fail ;  moss,  sorrel  and  wireweeds  will  usurp  the  ground, 
and  barrenness  take  the  place  of  fertility." 

THE    GRASSES    ARE    SOCIAL. 

The  grasses,  so  to  speak,  are  social  in  their  character, 
and  thrive  best  when  different  kinds  are  grown  together 
in  the  same  sod.     The  practical  farmer,  then,  should  un- 


30  WILLARD'S    PRACTICAL 

derstaiul  this  fuct  and  take  advantage  of  it  in  laying  down 
grass  lands  if  he  is  seeking  for  the  largest  product ;  as  it 
is  well  known  that  individual  plants  of  the  same  species 
will  not  grow  close  to  each  other  for  any  length  of  time ; 
for,  however  thickly  planted  from  seed,  in  one  or  two  sea- 
sons intermediate  plants  decay  and  leave  vacant  spaces 
Avhich  are  soon  tilled  up  with  spurious  grasses,  weeds  or 
moss.  But  when  a  variety  of  different  species  adapted 
to  the  soil  are  mixed  together  they  grow  close,  form  a 
dense  bottom  and  continue  permanent. 

A  DIFFEKEXT  ORDER  OF  SEEDS  FOR  PASTURES  THAN 
MEADOAVS. 

In  seeding  for  pastures  a  different  order  of  seeds  should 
be  used  than  for  meadows.  In  pastures  we  seek  to  have 
those  varieties  that  spring  up  in  succession,  so  that  a 
good,  fresh  bite  may  be  had  from  spring  to  fall. 

For  meadows,  on  the  other  hand,  we  seek  plants  that 
will  come  to  maturity  at  about  the  same  time,  otherwise 
a  portion  of  the  plants  are  cut  too  early  or  too  late,  and 
thus  loss  is  entailed. 

OVER-STOCKING. 

Many  dairymen  habitually  over-stock  their  j^astures, 
thus  not  only  doing  great  injury  to  the  grasses,  but  the 
cows,  from  an  msufficient  quantity  of  food  in  a  given 
space,  are  required  to  travel  long  distances  in  quest  of 
food,  and  thus  the  yield  of  milk  is  dimhiished.  By  this 
practice  the  roots  of  the  grasses  and  the  whole  plants  are 
kept  so  small  that  their  growth  is  feeble,  and  not  one- 
half  the  feed  is  afforded  that  the  land  would  produce  if 
stocked  properly  and  the  grass  allowed  to  get  a  good, 
thrifty  start.  But  tliis  is  not  tlie  only  disadvantage  to 
the  pasture  from  over-stocking,  Tlie  feeble  growth  of  the 
grasses  allows  other  plants  to  creep  in,  and  the  ground 
soon  becomes  overrun  with  weeds,  which,  on  account  of 
their  not  being  cropped  by  stock,  grow  in  great  luxuri- 
ance, maturing  their  seed  and  thus  impoverishing  the  soil. 
The  curse  of  American  dairying  to-day  is  Aveeds.  When 
once  they  get  full  possession  they  become  so  formidable 
that  the  farmer  is  often  disheartened  and  gives  up  their 
eradication.  It  is  always  advisable  to  pull  up  or  exter- 
minate bad  Aveeds  on  their  first  appearance  in  pastures, 
and  not  allow  thcni  to  spread.     There  are  many  Aveeds 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


31 


that  cows,  will  eat  during  a  dearth  of  nutritious  food, 
that  give  a  taint  to  tlie  milk,  and  thus  are  prejudicial  to 
a  fine  quality  of  buttei-.  ^yhen  pastures  are  over-stocked, 
QV  when  they  are  not  yielding  a  sufficient  supply  of  good, 
sweet,  nutritious  feed,  additional  rations  should  be  al- 
lowed the  cows,  such  as  bran,  ground  oats,  shorts  or  mill 
feed,  corn  fodder,  cut  grass,  or  some  other  forage  plant. 
Some  butter  dairymen  are  strong  advocates  of  corn  meal 
as  a  supplementary  feed  in  summer.  Corn  meal  being  of 
a  heating  nature,  we  do  not  regard  it  as  the  best  selec- 
tion in  hot  weather,  and  if  on  account  of  its  low  price  it 
is  deemed  advisable  to  use  it- at  such  times,  it  should  be 
mingled  Avitli  twice  or  thrice  its  bulk  of  bran.  In  this 
way  the  elements  of  milk  are  supplied  in  better  propor- 
tion, while  the  animals  will  maintain  better  health.  In 
cold  Aveather  corn  meal  can  often  be  fed  with  advantage. 
In  winter  and  spring  roots  are  exceedingly  valuable  in 
keeping  up  a  flow  of  milk  and  in  maintaining  the  health 
of  the  animal,  a  point  of  very  great  importance,  and  which 
must  not  be  overlooked  by  the  practical  dairyman  who  is 
seeking  the  best  returns  from  his  herd. 

cows    SHOULD    BE    FULL   FED. 

What  we  especially  desire  to  urge  in  this  connection  is, 
that  cows  should  at  all  times  be  full  fed  with  sweet  and 
nutritious  food.  AYe  do  not  believe  in  over-feeding,  and 
particularly  with  rich  grains  or  highly-concentrated  food. 
Dairy  stock  is  often  very  much  injured  by  injudicious 
feeding  with  this  kind  of  food.  Besides,  it  is  a  great 
waste  to  push  the  animal  to  consume  a  large  quantity  of 
expensive  concentrated  food  which  cannot  be  assimilated 
but  must  be  cast  oifin  the  excrements.  Nothing  will  be 
gained  in  the  quality  or  richness  of  milk  from  such  over- 
feeding, since  every  animal  has  a  structural  limit  to  her 
milk  in  this  regard  which  no  excess  of  feedins^  will  im- 
prove.  It  is  true,  by  over-feeding  the  richness  and  value 
of  the  manure  are  increased ;  but  as  the  same  elements 
can  be  furnished  at  much  cheaper  rates  from  other  sources 
than  in  the  undigested  or  unassimilated  meal  and  other 
highly-concentrated  food,  it  would  be  very  poor  economy 
on  this  score.  But  when  we  bring  into  account  the  dan- 
ger of  doing  injury  to  the  cow,  it  will  be  evident  that 
such  a  course  is  not  to  be  recommended.   The  tendency  of 


32 


WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 


over-feediug  is,  liowever,  not  so  great  in  summer  as  in 
spring,  or  at  sucli  times  as  when  the  animals  deprived  of 
pasturage  are  upon  a  stable  diet.  In  summer  the  main 
fault  among  dairymen  is  under-feeding,  from  a  misappre- 
hension of  the  capacity  of  pasture  hinds,  and,  in  conse- 
quence, over-stocking.  A  pasture  tliat  is  over-stocked  with 
but  one  or  two  animals,  if  no  additional  food  is  given  to 
the  herd  to  counterbalance  the  excess  of  stock,  will  de- 
crease the  yiekl  of  milk  much  more  than  the  average 
quantity  obtained  from  the  excess  of  stock.  In  other 
words,  the  dairyman,  under  such  circumstances,  would 
have  increased  liis  profits  had  he  in  s])ring  selected  out 
from  the  herd  two  of  the  poorest  cows  and  given  their 
milk  to  some  neighbor  for  their  pasturage.  But  the  true 
course  in  such  cases  is  to  supplement  the  feed,  making  up 
the  deficiency  occasioned  by  over-stocking. 

WINTER    DAIRYING. 

Somewhat  recently  the  plan  of  winter  dairying  has  been 
suggested,  and  is  strongly  advocated  by  a  few  persons 
who  claim  to  have  thoroughly  tested  tlie  matter ;  and 
prominent  among  these  is  Mr.  Boies  of  Marengo,  111., 
who  has  a  herd  of  about  130  cows  employed  in  butter 
dairying.  The  plan  is  to  have  the  cows  "come  in  milk" 
during  the  fall,  to  feed  high  during  winter  and  then  in 
spring,  when  the  animals  naturally  begin  to  fall  off  in 
milk,  the  May  and  June  pastures  send  them  up  to  nearly 
their  full  yield  again.  Later,  as  the  summer  drouth  occurs, 
or  as  grass  begins  to  deteriorate,  the  cows  are  "  dried  off" 
and  take  their  rest  preparatory  for  the  next  calving.  It 
is  claimed  for  this  system  tliat  cool  weather  is  more 
favorable  for  the  manufacture  of  butter  than  the  heat  of 
summer;  and  as  the  butter  market  is  generally  belter  in 
winter  than  in  summer,  together  with  less  risk  to  butter 
in  the  transportation,  tliese  considerations  have  weight  in 
favor  of  the  system.  On  the  other  hand  special  provision, 
it  would  seem,  must  be  made  for  keeping  the  cows  in 
warm  quarters,  well  ventilated,  together  with  an  ample 
supply  of  succulent  food,  roots,  <fcc.,  while  the  labor  of 
milking  and  the  manufacture  of  butter  in  all  its  details 
must  subject  the  operators  to  more  or  less  exposure  to 
cold  weather,  thereby  rendering  the  work  less  agreeable 
than  in  Avarm  weather,  to  say  the  least. 


BUTTER    BOOK.  33 


As  Mr.  Boies  has  been  a  very  successful  operator  under 
this  system,  it  may  be  of  interest  to  give  a  brief  account 
of  his  practice  as  detailed  by  liim  to  Mr.  J.  H.  Real,  a 
well-known  butter  dealer  of  Philadelphia.  Mr.  Real 
says  he  knows  of  no  one  who  has  produced  better  butter 
or  who  has  made  more  money  out  of  the  business  in  the 
same  length  of  tinie  tlian  Mr.  Boies,  and  we  quote  from  a 
recent  address  of  Mr.  Real  before  the  New  York  State 
Dairymen's  Convention  at  Binghamton,  in  which  he  gives 
Mr.  Boies'  statements  concerning  his  practice,  as  follows  : 

"  My  father  and  I  commenced  the  dairy  business  five 
years  ago,  without  any  capital,  except  oiir  cows.  We 
started  with  thirty -five  cows,  and  shipped  our  milk  to 
Chicago,  in  regular  milk  cans  ;  but  finding  it  very  costly, 
we  began  making  our  milk  into  cheese  the  following  sum- 
mer, and  in  the  succeeding  year  commenced  making 
butter.  At  first  we  put  it  up  in  poimd  lumps  and  shipped 
to  Chicago  once  a  week.  This  butter  realized  us  24  cents 
per  pound.  That  summer  we  bought  a  dairy  of  milk  in 
addition  to  our  own  dairy,  and  in  the  following  season 
contracted  for  one  more.  Each  year  since  we  made  addi- 
tions, until  at  ])resent  we  take  the  milk  from  over  400 
cows,  and  have  135  cows  of  our  own  and  a  firm  of  300  acres 
in  a  high  state  of  cultivation.  We  have  also  made  addi- 
tions to  our  milk-honse  every  year,  and  now  work  up 
17,000  pounds  of  milk  per  day.  The  milk-house  is  24  by 
40  feet,  and  our  workroom  20  feet  square. 

"  We  dry  our  cows  oif  about  the  first  of  July,  and  have 
them  come  in  fresh  in  the  fall  of  the  year  instead  of  drying 
them  ofi*  in  November,  as  is  the  ireneral  practice.  We 
give  our  cows  the  most  nourishing  kind  of  food  and  find 
it  ahnost  impossible  to  dry  them  ofi*  on  account  of  its 
richness.  The  quality  of  the  feed  makes  a  very  great  dif- 
ference in  the  quality  and  yield  of  butter. 

"  We  always  milk  our  cows  at  the  same  time  of  day.  In 
the  morning  we  give  each  cow  four  quarts  of  meal,  and 
do  the  milking  while  they  are  eating,  after  which  we  give 
thein  a  very  small  amount  of  salt,  perhaps  a  teaspoonful. 
We  also  give  them  a  quart  of  oil  meal  every  day,  to  assist 
digestion.  After  we  are  done  milking  and  the  cows  have 
finished  eating,  they  are  let  out  to  drink.  The  water  is 
always  warmed  in  the  xcinter. 


34  WILLARD'S    PRAOTIOAL 

"  When  the  weatlier  is  pleasant  and  warm,  the  eows  are 
let  out  in  the  sun  for  tliree  or  four  hours  during  the  middle 
of  the  day.  When  brought  in  they  are  fed  witli  early-cut 
hay.  Our  hay  is  cut  early,  in  order  to  retain  its  natural 
sweetness.  At  five  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  we  give  each 
cow  five  quarts  of  corn  and  oatmeal  mixed  together,  and 
then  milk  them  again. 

"  We  are  very  careful  about  our  stables,  and  enforce 
strict  quietness  in  them.  No  striking  or  pounding  of  the 
cows  is  allowed ;  they  are  always  driven  quietly.  We 
keep  them  warm,  but  avoid  too  high  a  temperature.  A 
number  of  cows  in  a  very  warm  stable  produces  an  un- 
healthy atmosphere.  We  consider  that  there  is  more 
danger  of  the  stable  being  too  warm  than  of  its  being 
too  cold. 

"  The  milk  is  delivered  from  the  surrounding  dairies  to 
our  factory  twice  a  day,  morning  and  evening.  In  the 
morning  it  is  taken  into  the  milk-house  and  strained  into 
three  large  pans,  each  of  which  is  13  feet  long,  4  feet 
wide  and  9  inches  deep. 

"We  keep  the  thermometer  in  our  milk-room  from  60  to 
65  degrees  Fahrenheit.  We  consider  it  better  to  let  the 
cream  sour  before  churning,  for  the  I'eason  that  the  butter 
is  a  good  deal  more  solid,  and  a  larger  quantity  and  a 
better  quality  result  from  sour  cream.  We  churn  every 
day,  Sunday  excepted.  We  use  three-quarters  of  an  ounce 
of  salt  to  a  pound  of  butter. 

"  Our  butter  is  taken  directly  from  the  churn  and  laid 
upon  a  white  ash  butter- worker  and  placed  in  a  cool  cel- 
lar, being  washed  before  taken  from  the  churn." 

He  aftirms  that  it  does  not  require  nearly  so  much  milk 
to  the  pound  of  butter  in  winter  as  in  summer ;  that  the 
difference,  according  to  his  experience,  is  full  25  per  cent, 
in  favor  of  winter  milk;  that  cows  would  not  give  any 
more  milk  in  summer  than  in  winter  if  properly  taken 
care  of,  while  in  winter  we  get  better  prices  for  butter. 
He  said  their  cows  produced  on  an  average  300  poimds  of 
butter  each  per  annum  ;  that  the  manure  from  cattle  taken 
care  of  by  his  system  is  of  the  most  valuable  kind,  almost 
equal  in  strength  to  guano. 

Mr.  Real  adds  that  he  knows  that  Mr.  Boies,  as  well 
as  others  in  his  locality  who  pursue  the  same  plan,  pro- 
duce the  finest  kind  of  butter,  and  that  Mr.  B.  has  attained 


BUTTER    BOOK.  35 

a  position  as  a  representative  dairyman  second  to  none 
other  in  tlie  country.  Mr.  Boies,  he  says,  supplies  the 
best  hotels  in  the  United  States  regularly  with  his  butter 
and  rarely  ever  sells  a  pound  under  forty-five  cents. 

Having  presented  the  main  features  of  this  system,  the 
question  need  not  be  discussed  further,  since  every  prac- 
tical dairyman  will  see  its  advantages  and  disadvantages, 
and  will  adopt  or  discard  the  system  as  it  best  suits  his 
views  and  his  convenience. 


MILK  m  ITS  PHYSIOLOGICAL  AND  CHEMICAL  RELATIONS. 


Of  milk,  Dr.  Abernethy  was  accustomed  to  say,  it  was 
"the  most  nutritious  of  all  things."  Prout  designated  it 
as  "the  true  type  of  all  food."  Gosse  claims  milk 
among  the  most  easily-digested  articles  of  food,  which  in- 
clude, according  to  him,  substances  which  are  converted 
into  chyme  within  one  to  one  and  a  half  hours.  Of  all 
the  secretions  whicli  are  elaborated  from  the  blood  there 
is  none  which  comes  so  near  it  in  chemical  composition  as 
niilk.  It  is  almost  the  only  food  which  will,  Avhen  used 
alone,  support  life  and  maintain  health  and  vigor  for  an 
indefinite  length  of  time,  and  Dr.  Carpenter,  in  his 
M-inunl  of  Physiology,  observes  that  milk  being  an  ad- 
mixture of  albuminous,  saccharine  and  oleaginous  substan- 
ces, indicates  the  intention  of  the  Creator  that  all  these 
sliould  be  employed  as  components  of  ordinary  diet. 
Besides  this  mixture  of  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous 
matters  so  essential  to  the  maintenance  of  life,  the  saline 
or  mineral  matters  which  milk  also  contains,  especially  the 
pliosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  are  no  less  necessary  to 
the  growth  and  development  of  the  young  animal. 

Milk,  as  is  well  known,  is  a  glandular  secretion  peculiar 
to  the  mammalia.  It  is  a  whitish,  opaque  liquid,  of  an  agree- 
able, sweetish  taste  and  a  faint  but  peculiar  odor.  Its 
specific  gravity  fluctuates,  according  to  Schereu,  between 
1.018  and  1.045,  but,  according  to  Voelcker,  cows'  milk 
of  good  quality  has  a  specific  gi-avity  of  1.030. 


36 


WILLARD'S    PRACTICAL 


Milk  is  essentially  an  emulsion  of  fatty  particles  in  a 
solution  of  caseine  and  milk  sugar.  The  fatty  matter  is 
not  contained  in  it  in  a  free  condition,  but  enclosed  in  a 
little  cell.  The  membrane  forming  the  walls  of  this  cell, 
is  suDposed  by  some  authors  to  be  caseine,  a  substance 
which  is  also  found  in  a  state  of  solution  in  the  milk. 
Others  have  ventured  the  opinion,  that  this  investing 
membrane  consists  of  an  albuminous  substance,  the  com- 
position of  which  has  not,  as  yet,  been  defined.  When 
examined  under  the  microscope,  without  the  addition  of 
any  chemical  reagent,  these  globules  exhibit  no  trace  of 
any  investing  membrane,  although  its  existence  lias  been 
demonstrated  beyond  a  doubt. 

Draper  affirms  that  caseine  may  be  separated  into  two 
parts,  one  containing  sulphur,  and  the  other  not,  and  he 
comes  to  the  conclui^ion  that  the  substance  we  designate 
as  caseine  consists  of  two  ingredients,  the  proteine  com- 
pound which  exists  in  a  state  of  solution  in  milk,  and 
also  that  which  forms  the  membrane  of  tlie  fat  corpus- 
cles. These  fat  globules  are  of  different  sizes  in  differ- 
ent animals,  and  even  in  aiiimals  of  the  same  kind  they 
vary  from  the  l-2000th  to  the  l-4000th  part  of  an  inch.  * 

The  illustration  P^ig,  1, 
gives  the  ordinary  appear- 
ance of  healthy  milk  when 
examined  by  a  highly 
magnifying  power.  In 
proportion  as  milk  is  rich 
in  butter,  so  are  the  glo- 
bules present  in  increased 
number  and  size.  The 
color  and  opacity  of  milk 
are  both  due  to  their 
presence.  As  these  glo- 
bules are  separated  in 
the  shape  of  cream,  the 
milk  becomes  clearer, 
and  acquires  a  peculiar, 
blueish    tint,  which    is  a 

Fig.  1— Microscopical  appearance  of       very    gOod    indication    of 

the  milk  globules.  ^g  character.      The  less 

transparent    milk  is  the  better  and  more  butter  it  eon- 
tains. 


BUTTER    BOOK.  37 

Dr.  Sturtevant,  of  Massachusetts,  wlio  has  recently 
made  some  valuable  investigations  in  regard  to  milk 
globules  of  differcHt  breeds,  states  that  the-  size  of  these 
globules  is  always  larger  near  the  time  of  calving,  de- 
creasing in  size  the  longer  the  time  advances  from  that 
period,  and  as  the  larger  the  globule  the  more  readily  it 
rises  to  the  surface,  we  have  an  explanation  why  milk 
that  has  been  set  for  cream,  and  skimmed  during  the 
spring,  or  soon  after  the  cows  have  calved,  is  so  poor. 
In  other  words  the  milk  which  is  less  rich  in  butter  dur- 
ing spring  than  in  fall,  also  parts  more  readily  with  its 
fat,  and  thus  the  skimmed  milk  is  comparatively  poorer 
than  at  any  other  time. 

The  cheese-maker  jnay  learn  from  this,  that  he  cannot 
skim  milk  with  impunity  at  such  seasons.  That  in  fact 
there  is  no  time  when  the  cheese  feels  the  skimmer  so 
sensibly. 

COLOSTRUM. 

The  first  milk  of  the  cow  after  calving  is  called  Colos- 
trum. When  examined  under  the  microscope,  it  is  found 
that  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  milk  globules,  granular 
corpuscles  of  a  pale  yellowisli  color,  measuring  from 
l-800th  to  l-2000tii  of  Im  inch  are  present.   (See  Fig.  2). 

The  existence  of  these 
granular  cells  imparts  a 
purgative  action  to  the 
fluid,  whicli  is  generally 
viewed  as  being  of  great 
use  in  assisting  in  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  meconium 
from  the  intestines  of  the 
young  animal.  This  pe- 
culiar substance  accumu- 
lates in  considerable 
quantities  in  the  intes- 
tinal canal,  during  the 
latter  period  of  utero  ges- 
tation^ and  it  would  ap- 
pear that  after  birth  the 
stimulating  or  cathartic 
action  of  the  colostrum  is       ^      ^  ,,. 

,  ^        .  ,  Fig.  2— Microsco)iiciil    appearance  of 

required  tor    its    removal,    cilostrum -a.a.  granular  eorpuscle;. 


gg  WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 

Colostral  milk  differs  essentially  from  the  subsequent 
ordinary  secretion.  The  colostrum  contains  a  much  larger 
proportion  of  solid  materials  than  the  milk.  According 
to  Draper,  the  quantity  of  fat  in  some  cases  is  nearly 
double,  the  quantity  of  sugar  is  likewise  much  greater, 
but  the  relative  quantity  of  caseine  is  less. 

On  the  other  hand,  according  to  Voelcker  and  Bous- 
siN-GAULT,  the  colostrum  contains  an  unusually  large 
quantity  of  curd.  Boussixgault  gives  the  following  as 
the 

COMPOSITIOX    OF    COLOSTRUM,    OR    FIRST  -  DRAWN    MILK    OF 
THE   COW  : 

Wiiter 75.8 

Butter  (pure  fat) 2.6 

Caseine 15.0 

Milksugiir 3.6 

Minenil  matter  (asli) 3.0 

100.0 

In  from  eight  to  ten  days  after  calving  this  peculiarity 
disappears  and  the  milk  assumes  its  ordinary  condition. 
Lehmanx  describes  colostrum  as  a  turbid,  yellowish  fluid 
similar  to  soap  and  water,  having  a  viscid  consistence  and 
a  strongly  alkaline  reaction.  It  passes  more  rapidly  into 
lactic  acid  fermentation  than  normal  milk,  and  it  con- 
stantly exhibits  an  excess  of  solid  constituents,  both  in 
wo:n3!i  and  a  li  n  i!s,  as  we  learn  from  Simox,  Ciiea^alier, 
and  Hendry.  According  to  tlie  last-named  observer,  this 
augmentation  is  most  marked  in  the  caseine  in  the  milk 
of  cows,  asses  and  goats. 

Although  on  microscopical  investigation  its  external  ap- 
pearance would  seem  to  show  that  colostrum  contains  less 
fat,  the  contrary  is  proved  by  the  results  of  most  analy- 
ses. The  colostrum  is  richer  in  fat  than  the  corresponding 
milk.  The  cause  of  this  striking  ])henomenon  may  perhaps 
depend  upon  the  quantity  of  fit  contained  in  the  granular 
masses.  The  colostrum  contains,  moreover,  from  two  to 
three  times  more  salts  than  the  milk. 

SEr-RETIOX. 

The  secretion  of  milk,  s.iys  Prof.  Simoxds,  forms  no 
exception  to  the  rule  which  obtains  with  reference  to  ani- 
mal products  in  general,  namely,  that  it  is  formed  from 
arterial  blood.  So  large  an  amount  of  milk  as  is  well 
known   to  be  furnished  within   a  few  hours  by  the  cow 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


39 


necessarily  requires  a  corresponding  quantity  of  blood  for 
its  secretion.  We  find,  therefore,  that  the  arteries  going 
to  the  udder  are  both  large  and  numerous,  and  the 
branches  of  each  vessel  freely  anastomose  together,  so 
that  no  interruption  to  the  regularity  of  the  supply  of 
blood  to  every  part  of  the  gland  may  take  place. 

The  anterior  portion  of  the  mammae  receives  its  blood 
chiefly  from  the  internal  pectoral  arteries^  which,  quitting 
the  chest,  run  in  a  backward 
course  to  reach  the  glands. 
The  posterior  parts  are  sup- 
plied principally  by  branches 
called  the  mammary  arteries, 
which  come  off  from  the  epi- 
gastric artery.  In  addition 
to  these,  the  circumflex  artery 
of  the  ileum  sends  numerous 
branches  to  the  glands,  which 
likewise  anastomose  with  the 
other  vessels.  The  several 
vessels  which  come  off  fi-om 
these  trunks  penetrate  into 
the  substance  of  the  mam- 
mae,   within-   which  they    free- fig,  S-A  hiiilily    ira^nifled  view  of 

1  T       \^  T       th6  ccEcal  extremities     or  follicles 

ly  ramity  bv  numerous  dl-  of  the  Inctifeions ducts  in  winch  the 
visions        and         sub-divisions,      secretion  of  milk  takes  place. 

Ultimately,  by  further  splitting  up,  and  consequent 
diminution  of  their  caliber,  they  form  vessels  so  minute 
as  to  be  unobservable  to  the  naked  eye,  and  which  have 
been  designated  capillaries.  These  are  distributed  to  the 
follicles,  or  coecal  extremities  of  the  lactiferous  ducts, 
upon  which  they  form  a  minute  r6?^6  of  vessels,  and  furnish 
blood,  both  in  a  sufiicient  quantity,  and  also  in  a  condi- 
tion fitted  for  the  secretion  of  milk.  The  cut  (Fig.  3) 
represents  the  coecal  extremities  of  the  lactiferous  ducts, 
higlily  magnified,  and  surrounded  by  their  net-like  struc- 
ture of  capillaries. 

From  the  ctiecal  extremities  the  milk,  as  quickly  as  it 
is  formed,  finds  its  way  along  the  minute  excretory  ducts 
to  which  they  are  attached,  into  large  tubes,  and  thence 
into  various  sized  cavities,  which  are  termed  reservoirs. 
The  arrangement  of  this  i^ortion  of  the  gland  may  be 
compared  to  bunches  of  currants,  as  connected  with,  or 


40 


WILLAKDS   PRACTICAL 


growing  upon,  tlieir  foot-stalks.  The  fruit  \vould  liere 
represent  the  milk-secreting  follicles,  and  the  stalks  the 
tubes  by  which  it  is  conveyed  away.  Fig.  4  will  convey 
a  clear  idea  of  this  structure.  The 
lactiferous  or  excietory  ducts  are 
here  marked  a,  and  milk-secreting 
follicles    h.  From    the    smaller 

sized  reservoirs  which  are  shown 
in  Fig.  5  the  milk  passes  through 
imiuerous  canals  into  the  large  re- 
^crvoir  of  the  gland  which  is  sit- 
uated just  above  the  teat.  (See  a. 
Fig.  5.)  Here  it  is  detained  in  con- 
siderable quantitv,  olten  to  the  ex- 
'^n^iik*r4^:itKouU^^^^  of  two   or  more   quarts,   says 

lacifeious  ducts.  Vxoi.  SiMONDS,until  drawH  off  by  the 

sucking  of  the  calf,  or  by  the  act  of  milking,  which  not 
only  empties  the  large,  but  all  the  other  reservoirs  and 
milk  ducts. 

In  regard  to  the  size  of  the  large  reservoir  situated  just 
above  the  teat,  authorities  diifer.  Some  make  it  of  a  size 
holding  from  less  tlian  a  gill  to  a  quart,  and  Dr. 
Sturtevant  affirms  that  in  his  dissections  of  the  udder 
he  has  never  found  it  more  than  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
diameter.  It  Avill  thus  be  seen  by  the  arrangement 
of  the  component  parts  of  the  manmise  provision  is 
made  not  merely  for  the  secretion  but  for  the  reten- 
tion of  a  large  quantity  of  milk.  In  Fig.  5,  which 
represents  the  udder  of  the  cow  stripped  of  the  skin, 
its  vessels  injected,  tSrc,  one  of  the  anterior  glands  is 
laid  open  to  show  the  large  reservoir  ;  a  the  end  of  a 
probe  is  depicted  as  being  passed  into  it,  having  been 
carried  upward  through  the  teat,  through  the  duct  in  the 
teat ;  6,  h  represent  the  smaller  reservoirs,  some  of  which 
are  openino;  into  the  large  one,  and  c,  c  show  the  lobu- 
lated  condition  of  the  external  portion  of  the  posterior 
glands,  which  is  produced  by  collections  of  lactiferous 
ductvS.  The  mammary  veins  are  represented  by  <:/,  J,  and 
e  is  the  origin  of  the  superfjcial  abdominal  vein,  commonly 
called  the  inUk  vein. 

In  regard  to  the  veins  of  the  mammae,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
5  (<:?,  €?  and  e),  they  are  very  numerous  and  large,  it  being 
necessary  that  every  facility  should  be  given  for  the  re- 


mm  :s\## 


Fir..  5-V5ew  of  the  ndder  of  fhe  ro^  after  bolng  r-tripped  of   the  «km  i^hich 
C0T6IS  it.— FlK  A.  ConrsR, 


42  WILLARDS   PRACTICAL 

turn  into  the  system  of  tlie  blood  which  has  not  been 
appropriated  for  the  secretion  of  milk,  or  for  the  niain- 
tainance  of  the  integrity  of  the  glands. 

Taking  their  rise  chiefly  from  the  capillary  network  of 
the  milk  follicles  the  small  vesticles  coalesce  to  form  dis- 
dinct  branches  of  veins — the  mammary  veins.  Many  of 
these  pursue  a  course  toward  the  u|)per  and  front  part  of 
it  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  the  blood  into  the  large 
vessels  which  are  met  with  in  both  these  situations.  The 
veins  which  pass  backward  empty  themselves  into  the 
inguinal  and  these  in  turn  into  the  iliac  veins,  by  which 
this  portion  of  the  blood  is  returned  to  the  heart  through 
the  posterior  ve7ia  cava.  Those,  on  the  contrary,  which 
proceed  forward  convey  the  blood  into  large  vessels — the 
superficial  abdominal  veins,  commonly  known  as  the  milk 
veins.,  and  by  them  it  is  transmitted  into  the  internal  pec- 
toral veins,  reaching  the  heart  by  means  of  the  anterior 
ve7ia  cava. 

The  size  of  the  superficial  abdominal  vein  (see  6,  Fig. 
5)  on  either  side  of  the  belly,  sufilciently  indicates  that  the 
greater  part  of  the  blood  coming  from  the  udder  passes 
through  them.  The  size  of  these  veins,  as  is  well  known, 
has  always  been  taken  as  an  indication  to  some  extent  of 
the  capacity  of  the  cow  for  yielding  milk.  A  large  flow 
of  milk  would  necessarily  require  a  large  amount  of  blood 
to  be  distributed  through  the  mammae,  and  as  this  blood 
must  be  carried  back  to  the  heart,  the  milk  veins  must 
necessarily  be  larger  or  smaller  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  blood  used  in  these  parts.  The  four  glands 
forming  the  udder,  it  may  be  observed,  are  as  separate 
and  distinct  from  each  other  as  if  they  had  been  placed  at 
considerable  distance  apart.  This  perfect  and  complete 
isolation  of  the  mammae  is  a  wise  provision  of  nature ; 
for  should  one,  two,  or  even  three  become  aflTeeted  with 
disease  and  lose  the  power  of  secreting  milk,  the  remain- 
ing gland  or  glands  would  still  furnish  a  sufficiency  of 
the  fluid  to  maintain  at  least  the  vitality  of  the  oflspring. 
The  separation  of  the  one  gland  from  the  other  is  effected 
by  a  reflection  of  fibrous  tissue  coming  off  from  tlie  walls 
of  the  abdoinen  and  dipping  as  a  septum  between  them. 
The  same  tissue,  also,  is  continued  as  a  covering  to  each 
gland,  and  thus  binds  the  whole  of  them  together.  This 
arrangement  places  the  entire  udder  in  a  kind  of  sling, 


BUTTER    BOOK.  ^g 

and  maintains   its  close  coniiection  with  the  abdominal 
parietes. 

In  many  aged  cows  the  external  reflection  of  fibrous 
tissue,  from  having  been  kept  long  on  the  stretch,  loses 
some  of  its  suspending  power,  and  hence  in  such  animals 
the  udder  is  often  very  loose  and  pendulous,  occasionally 
hanging,  in  consequence,  to  Avithin  a  few  inches  of  the 
ground— a  state  of  things  which  is  irremediable. 

MODE    OF    ACTIOX    OF    THE    MAMJIA.RY    GLAND. 

A  question  of  some  interest  in  connection  with  the 
function  of  the  mammary  gland,  is  w^hether  it  fabricates 
in  itself  by  the  agency  of  cells  the  proximate  constituents 
of  milk,  or  whether  it  merely  strains  them  from  the  blood 
in  which  they  pre-exist.  Authorities  differ  in  regard  to 
this  question.  Draper,  the  well-known  physiolocrist,  says  : 
*' The  influence  of  special  structure  is  disproved  by  the 
numerous,  well -authenticated  cases  now  on  record,  in 
w^hich  portions  of  the  skin,  or  the  stoninch,  the  navel,  in- 
testines, the  axilla  and  glands  in  the  groin  have  assumed 
a  vicarious  action  and  secreted  milk."  He  infers,  there- 
fore, that  the  proximate  constituents  of  the  milk  are  not 
manufactured  by  reason  of  any  special  structure  of  the 
gland  which  .secretes  them,  since  other  structures  can 
assume  a  vicarious  action. 

Of  the  proximate  elements  of  milk,  manv,  such  as  the 
entire  group  of  its  salts,  are  acknowledged  on  all  hands 
to  pre-exist  in  the  blood;  and  these  constituents,  about 
l-25th  of  its  solid  ingredients,  must  be  admitted  to  pass 
into  the  secretion  by  straining  only.  Of  the  other  solid 
ingredients  the  fit,  which  constitutes  about  one-fourth,  also 
exists  in  the  blood,  being  derived  by  lacteal  absorption 
from  the  food.  There  are  many  facts  which  show  that 
the  identical  f-it  occurring  in  the  food  is  actually  delivered 
by  the  mammary  gland  with  many  of  its  qualities  un- 
changed. Thus,  if  by  chance  cows  should  eat  the  tender 
shoots  of  pine  trees  or  wild  onions  or  other  strong-smellincr 
herbs,  the  milk  is  at  once  contaminated  with  the  special 
flavor  of  these  oils.  The  feeding  of  turnips  also  pro- 
duces the  same  effect.  If  half  the  allowance  of  hay  for  a 
cow  is  replaced  by  an  equivalent  of  linseed  cake  rich  in 
oil,  the  cow  maintains  herself  in  good  condition,  but  the 


44  WILLARD  S    PRACTICAL 

milk  produces  a  butter  more  than  usually  soft,  and  tainted 
with  a  peculiar  flavor  derived  from  the  linseed  oil. 

Again  he  says,  that  fats  of  various  kinds  must  always 
exist  in  the  blood.  A  simple  arithmetical  computation, 
founded  on  the  data  furnished  by  the  tables,  of  the  con- 
stitution of  blood  and  of  milk,  will  show  that  there  is  at 
any  moment  a  suflicient  sui)ply  of  fatty  -matters  in  the 
blood  to  furnish  two-thirds  of  the  diurnal  amount  of  milk. 
It  does  not  therefore,  seem  philosophical,  under  these 
circumstances,  to  impute  to  the  mammary  gland  the  power 
of  forming  butter.  It  doubtless  obtains  that  substance 
directly  from  the  blood,  and  it  may  be,  he  observes,  that 
those  bodies  which  are  conceived  of  as  cells,  and  which 
are  supposed  to  arise  in  the  lobules  of  the  gland  in  suc- 
cessive broods,  which  run  a  rapid  career,  coming  into  ex- 
istence, reaching  maturity,  dying  and  deliquescing  with 
incredible  rapidity,  are  in  reality  nothing  more  than  oil 
globules,  which  have  coated  themselves  over  with  a  cyst 
of  coagulated  caseine,  as  in  Ascheron's  experiments,  or 
just  as  they  become  coated  with  a  similar  iilm,  immedi- 
ately on  passing  from  the  intestine  into  the  lacteal  ves- 
sels;  and  this,  accordingly,  is  the  opinion  which  Dkapeu 
entertains. 

Again,  he  says  there  has  been  much  controversy  among 
chemists  respecting  the  existence  of  caseine  as  a  normal 
ingredient  in  the  blood.  Theoretically  there  does  not  ap- 
pear* any  solid  reason  for  denying  that  it  may  be  one  of 
those  constituents,  considering  the  analogy  of  constitution 
which  it  shows  with  albumen.  From  the  acknowledged 
fact  that  the  acid,  interstitial  juice  of  muscle-fiber  contains 
caseine,  there  cannot  be  any  doubt  tliMt  that  substance 
must  pre-exist  in  the  blood.  Chemically,  the  transition 
from  albumen  to  caseine  is  not  to  be  i-egarded  either  as 
an  ascending  or  declining  metamorphosis,  but  only  as  the 
temporary  assum|)tion  of  a  state  of  passage  onward  to 
the  condition  of  fibrine. 

The  question  is  argued  by  Draper  at  considerable  length, 
and  he  concludes  from  the  data  at  hand  respecting  the  ori- 
gin of  the  difi\?rent  constituents  of  the  milk,  the  caseine, 
the  butter,  the  sugar  and  the  salts,  that  he  may  come  to  a 
definite  conclusion  regarding  the  physiological  action  of 
the  mammary  gland.  And  as  it  appears  that  all  the  con- 
stituents  which  its  secretion   contains  are  found  in  the 


BUTTER    BOOK.  45 

blood,  we  can  scarcely  suppose  that  the  gland  itself  does 
more  than  merely  strain  them  out.  But  of  course,  in 
common  with  all  such  structures,  it  possesses  what  might 
be  aptly  termed  an  elective  filtrating  power ;  thus  it  per- 
mits the  exudation  of  some  substances  from  the  blood, 
but  refuses  a  passage  to  others. 

Dr.  Sturtevant,  in  a  recent  lecture  before  the  Connect- 
icut State  Board  of  Agriculture,  seems  to  have  taken  the 
same  views  as  tliose  expressed  by  Draper — at  least  so  far 
as  relates  to  the  formation  of  the  butter  globules.  He 
says: — "The  mimite  secreting  cells  of  tlie  udder  are 
really  but  a  stage  of  development  of  the  butter  globule 
itself.  The  cells  grow  by  budding  and  the  new  cell  is 
cast  off  and  becomes  a  butter  globule.  What  was  before 
a  part  of  the  animal  is  now  a  globule.  In  the  early  stages 
of  lactation  and  before  parturition,  the  process  of  casting 
oif  milk  cells  is  not  so  complete  as  later. 

"  The  milk  globules  are  found  to  be  larger  in  the  Jersey 
cow  than  in  the  Ayrshire,  and  larger  in  the  Ayrshire  than 
in  the  American  Holstein.  The  membrane  which  covers 
them  and  which  has  to  be  ruptured  in  churning,  is  more 
easily  broken  in  the  Jersey  than  in  the  Ayrshire,  and  thus 
butter  is  formed  quicker.  The  contents  of  the  globules  vary 
in  character — in  some  kinds  waxy,  in  others  not.  That 
of  the  large*  globules  makes  the  best  butter.  As  to  the 
variation  consequent  on  time,  the  functional  activity  of 
the  udder  decreases  with  time  after  calving,  and  finally 
its  action  ceases.  The  globule  is  larger  too,  at  the  time 
of  calving,  and  butter  is  then  brought  more  easily  by 
churning.  Per  contra^  the  autumn  cheese  is  richer  than 
the  early  cheese,  the  globules  being  smaller  and  more  of 
them  escaping  butter  m?lking  and  getting  into  the  cheese. 

"These  two  points  of  variation  by  breed  and  time  from 
calving,  are  important  points  for  the  dairyman  to  consider 
and  act  upon.  The  influence  of  food  upon  the  milk  «rlob- 
ules  must  be  either  to  increase  the  size  of  the  globules,  or 
by  increasing  the  energy  of  the  glands  produce  greater 
rapidity  of  production." 

Other  physiologists  take  the  ground  that  the  sugar  of 
milk,  caseine  and  true  butyrine  have  a  doubtful  existence 
in,  or  have  not  been  clearly  recognized  in  the  blood,  and 
hence  that  these  constituents  are  formed  in  the  mammary 
gland.  Lehmanx  says,  we  cannot  a&sume,  as  Chevreul 
3 


46 


WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 


and  other  chemists  (and  even  he  Iiimself)  formerly  did,  that 
the  constituents  of  milk  exist  performed  in  the  blood  ;  and 
finally,  after  reviewing  the  arguments  that  are  given 
which  favor  the  view  that  there  occurs  a  preliminary 
remodeling  of  the  substances  to  be  conveyed  by  tlie 
blood  to  the  glands  for  secretion,  lie  is  inclined  to  recog- 
nize the  principle  that  the  main  constituents  of  all  true 
secretions,  like  those  of  the  liver  and  mammary  glands, 
are  first  formed  within  the  glandular  organs  themselves. 

MILK    BEST    FROM    YOUNG    ANIMALS. 

Variations  in  the  composition  of  milk  are  observed  to 
depend  upon  age  and  bodily  health.  Young  cows  yield 
a  milk  more  rich  in  solids  than  old  cows.  This  point 
seems  to  be  well  understood  by  dairymen  in  England, 
many  of  whom  make  it  a  rule  to  turn  their  cows  ofi*  when 
they  have  arrived  at  from  seven  to  eight  years  of  age. 
On  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  the  diiference  in  the  quality 
of  milk  on  account  of  age,  has  received  scarcely  any  at- 
tention from  dairymen,  the  general  view  taken  being  that 
an  old  cow's  milk  is  as  good,  if  not  better,  than  the  milk 
of  young  cows. 

I  have  now  given  the  generally  accepted  views  of  dis- 
tinguished physiologists  in  regard  to  the  structure  of  the 
udder  and  the  functions  of  the  glands  in  the  secretion  of 
milk,  and  we  now  pass  to  what,  in  a  commercial  aspect, 
may  be  considered  the  chief  constituent  of  milk,  namely — 

THE    FATTY     MATTER    OF    MILK. 

While  the  proportion  of  caseine  is  tolerably  constant, 
varying  but  little,  the  amount  of  butter  or  fatty  matter  in 
milk  is  subject  to  great  variation.  From  an  extensive 
series  of  analyses  made  by  Dr.  Voi^cker,  the  distinguish- 
ed chemist  cf  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England, 
he  gives  the  following  as  the  greatest  variation  in  genuine 
cow's  milk ;  that  is  to  say,  in  healthy  milk,  or  milk  not 
])roduced  in  any  way  abnormally : 


COMPOSITION 

OP 

NEW 

MILK. 

1.           2. 

83.90    85.20 
7.62      4.W 
3.31      3.6« 
4.4r.      5.05 
.7.1.1.13 

100.00  100.^0 

Ifi.ioi  14.80 

3.     1     4. 
87.40i  fc9.!'5 

3.48      1.99 

3.12     2.94 

5.12'    4.48 

Minfr-il  msitfpr  /imh^                                   

93        M 

PercentJiRe 

nf  dry  mattprs. 

lOO.CO  100.00 
12.C0'  lO.Od 

BUTTER    BOOK. 


47 


The  same  author  gives  the  following  table,  as  showing 
the  great  difference  in  the  composition  of  the  milk  of  dif- 
ferent animals : 


Cow. 

Human. 

Ass. 

Go:it. 

Ewe. 

Dog. 

Dotr. 

87.03 
3.13 

4.87 

4.77 

-GO 

88.94 
2.67 
3.92 
4.33 
.14 

•Jl.fio 
.11 

1.82 

0.08 

.34 

85.54 
4.08 
4.52 

\  5.86 

76.:^0 
1.20 

13.37 
7.10 
1.63 

8^.10 
4.45 
5.76 

5.73 
.96 

67.20 
13.30 
14.60 
3.42 
1.48 

Milk  sugar 

Mineral  matter  (ash) — 

> 100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

No.  3,  in  the  first  table,  represents  the  composition  of 
milk  of  average  good  quality. 

Generally  speaking,  milk  is  i-icher  in  the  fall  and  poorer 
in  the  spring.  The  quality  of  cow's  milk  is  not  only 
affected  by  the  age  of  the  animal,  but  by  the  dis- 
tance from  the  time  of  calving.  Climate  also  affects  the 
quality  of  milk  in  a  remarkable  degree.  In  moist  and 
temperate  seasons  we  obtain  a  larger  quantity,  though 
generally  a  poorer  quality  of  milk  than  in  dry,  warm  sea- 
sons. The  race  and  breed  and  size  of  animals  have  also 
an  important  influence  on  the  quality  of  milk. 

According  to  Voelckee,  good  milk  of  average  quality 
contains  from  10|^  to  11  per  cent,  of  dry  matter  and  about 
2i  per  cent,  of  pure  fat.  It  yields  from  9  to  10  per  cent. 
of  cream.  Milk  which  contains  more  than  90  per  cent, 
of  water  and  less  than  two  per  cent,  of  pure  fat,  is  natu- 
rally very  poor  or  has  been  adulterated. 

When  milk  contains  from  12  to  12^  per  cent,  of  solid 
matters  and  from  3  to  3|  per  cent,  of  pure  fatty  sub- 
stances, it  is  considered  rich.  And  if  it  contains  more 
than  12^  per  cent,  of  dry  matter  and  4  per  cent,  or  more 
of  pure  fat,  it  is  of  extra  rich  quality.  Such  milk  throws 
up  from  11  to  12  per  cent,  of  cream  in  bulk  on  standing 
for  24  hours  at  62  degrees  Fahr. 

COMPOSITION    OF    CREAM. 

Cream  varies  in  composition  according  to  tlie  circum- 
stances under  which  it  is  produced,  and  as  a  consequence 
of  these  differences  in  the  composition  of  cream  variable 
quantities  of  butter  are  produced  from  a  given  bulk  of 
cream.  The  value  of  milk,  then,  for  butter-making  can- 
not be  determined  simply  from  the  percentage  of  "cream 
thrown  up.  The  butter  value  must  be  obtained  by  churn- 
ing the  cream. 


48 


WILLARD'S    PRACTICAL 


VoELCKER   anulyzed    tour    different  samples  of  crenm, 
wliich  gave  the  following  results: 


Water.... 

TJutter  (pure  fatty  inattei). 

*Ca  seine 

-Milk  sugar 

Mineral  matters  (asli) 


74  46 

18.18 
2.69 
4.08 
0  5;> 


2. 

5(i.50 
31.57 

|8..4;. 

3.4<1 

4. 

64  80 
25.40 

■^'2';9^" 

fil.67 
33.43 
2.62 
l.ri". 
0.72 

♦Containing  nitroeren 


100.  CO 
4.'^ 


100.00 


100.00 

.42 


Dr.  Sturtevant  gives  the  following  authorities  on  the 
analvses  of  cream : 


Water. 

Solid.s. 

40.75 
51,00 
6:^.60 
25.5 1 

35,20 
43.50 

38.a3 
36.72 

Butter. 

35.00 
42.00 
56.R0 
18.18 

25.40 
3157 

33.43 
29.40 

Caseine.  1  Sugar. 

2.20       1      3.05 
4.20       '      3.80 
3.80       i      2.80 
2.69       1      4.08 

Ash. 

.50 
.60 
.20 
.59 

2.19 
3.49 

.72 

.40 

Etc, 

Mixed  cream  (1) 

Country  cream  (2)... 

.lersev  cream  (3) 

No.  1  (4) 

59  25 
49.00 
36.40 
74  46 

64  80 
56.50 

fil.67 
6!.28 

No.  2 

No.  3 

7.61 
844 

No.  4 

2.62       1      1.56 
4.22       1      2.08 

Cream  (5)  

.56 

(1)  Prof,  :M:ueiei  ai  quoted,  Trans.  Vt.  Dairymen's  Ass'n,  1872.  p.  150. 
(2  and  3)  Dr.  Percy-Trans.  Med.  Soc.  State  of  N.  Y..  1860.  p. 47. 

(4)  D'.  Voelcker-Journal  U.  A.  S.,  XXIV.  p.  298. 

(5)  Dr.  Haiinenburg  quoted— Ag.  of  O.  1858,  p.  282. 

And  he  says,  "  We  find  from  these  analyses  that  some 
creams  may  yield  three  times  as  much  butter  as  other 
creams.  In  other  words,  that  milk  yielding  10  per  cent, 
of  cream  may  furnish  more  hutter  than  another  milk  in- 
dicating 30  per  cent,  of  cream,"  and  he  concludes  further, 
"that  there  is  not  necessarily  any  connection  between  the 
cream  percentages  and  the  butter  yield."  The  modest 
cow  with  a  small  percentage,  mai/  make  more  butter 
than  the  vaunted  cow  which  is  supposed  to  average  25 
to  30  per  cent,  of  cream." 

European  authorities  all  say  that  cream  is  slightly 
den.'^er  than  pure  water,  and  that  consequently  it  sinks  in 
distilled  water.  Yoelcker  found  the  specific  gravity  of 
cream  at  a  temperature  of  62  degrees  Fahr.  to  range  from 
1,0194  to  1,0129,  the  milk  having  been  skimmed  after 
standing  fifteen  to  forty-eight  hours,  respectively.. 

Dr.  Stitrtevaxt,  in  a  recent  paper  before  the  American 
Dairymen's  Association,  says,  in  his  own  experiment  using 
cream  from  the  top  of  a  cream  jar,  he  had  obtained  a 
specific  gravity  of  983  by  weight,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
lie  has  found  cream  that  wouhl  sink  in  water.  He  gives 
also  different  authoi'ities,  in  regard  to  the  specific  gravity 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


49 


of  cream,  thus  Lethe rby  finds  it  to  be  1024,4  ;  Pr.  Han- 
NEBEiia  of  Stockholm,  1004,9,  and  1005,05.  These  differ- 
ences may,  perhaps,  be  explained,  in  part,  at  least,  from 
the  foct  that  the  first  portions  of  milk  which  rise,  are  al- 
ways thin  but  rich  in  fat.  During  milking  and  the  sub- 
sequent agitation  to  which  milk  is  exposed,  a  portion  of 
the  milk  globules  get  broken,  in  consequence  of  which 
their  fatty  contents,  liberated  from  the  denser  caseine- 
shells,  rise  to  the  surface  with  greater  facility,  and  then 
occupy  less  room  than  the  unbroken  milk  globules,  which 
on  account  of  their  greater  specific  gravity,  are  more  slug- 
gish in  rising. 

Hence  it  must  be  observed  that  care  must  be  taken 
that  the  cream  be  properly  mingled  together,  before 
attempting  to  get  the  specific  gravity.  And  when  this 
is  done,  we  shall,  I  think,  generally  find  that  cream  is 
slightly  denser  than  pure  water,  and  this  agrees  with  my 
own  observations. 

CEEAM     OF     FIKST     DRAWN     MILK     OF     POORER      QUALITY 
THAX    LAST    DRAWN. 

Of  the  milk  drawn  from  any  cow  at  one  time,  that 
part  which  comes  oft'  first  is  always  thinner,  and  of  a 
much  worse  quality  for  making  butter,  than  that  obtained 
during  the  latter  half  of  the  milking. 

From  an  analysis  of  specimens  of  milk,  from  eight  dif- 
ferent cows,  as  given  in  the  London  Lancet,  the  percent- 
age of  cream  in  the  first  drawn  and  second  drawn  milk, 
was  as  follows  : 


-FIEIST-DRAWX    MILk- 

Specific 
Cows,     gntvity.    Cream. 


10-.'7 
10?6 
1027 
1029 
1030 
1030 
1029 
1031 


9 
13 

8 

7 
11 

8 

61« 


-SECOND-DRAWN    5IILK — , 

Specific 

gravity. 

Cream. 

1023 

25 

1023 

22 

1025 

10 

1024 

15 

1024 

tjO 

10>2 

25 

1026 

7K 

1030 

5 

141K 

Thus,  Avldle  the  cream  of  the  whole  eight  samples  of 
the  first  drawn  milk,  amounted  to  61^,  that  of  the 
last  drawn  amounted  to  14H,  or  more  than  double 
the  quantity  of  cream.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  last 
drawn  milk,  it  will  be  observed,  is  also  lower  than  of 
that  first  drawn.  o 


50 


WILLARDS    PHACTIOAL 


"When  milk  is  set  aijicle  for  cream,  the  portion  of  creaoL 
which  first  rises  to  the  surface  is  richer  in  quality,  and 
equal  in  quantity  to  that  which  rises  in  a  seconcl  equal 
space  of  time,  and  the  cream  which  rises  in  a  second  in- 
terval of  time  is  greater  in  quantity  and  richer  in  quality, 
that  which  rises  in  a  third  equal  space  of  time.  That  of 
the  third  is  greater  than  that  of  the  fourth,  and  so  of  the 
rest;  the  cream  that  rises  continuing  progressively  to  de- 
crease in  quantity  and  quality  so  long  as  any  rises  to  the 
surface.  The  cream  then  rises  in  layers,  each  of  which 
must  make  a  different  quality  of  butter.  Tliick  milk 
throws  up  a  much  smaller  proportion  of  the  cream  which 
it  actually  contains,  than  milk  that  is  thinner,  but  the 
cream  is  of  richer  quality.  Hence,  if  water  be  added  to 
the  thick  milk  it  is  found  in  practice  to  afford  a  consider- 
ably greater  quantity  of  cream,  and  consequently  more 
butter  than  it  would  have  done  if  allowed  to  remain  pure, 
but  its  quality  at  the  same  time  is    deteriorated. 

Some  of  the  fat  globules  of  milk  are  so  minute,  that 
they  do  not  rise  to  the  surface  in  cream,  the  amount  of 
fat  remaining  being  greater  or  less,  according  to  the 
character  of  the  milk. 

VoELCKER  analyzed  two  samples  of  skimmed  milk,  and 
found  the  butter  left  in  it  to  be  about  f  of  i  per  cent, 
is  the  composition: 

COMPOSITIOX    OP    SKIMMED    MILK, 


The  following 


Water 

No.  1 

89.65 

.79 

3.01 

5.72 

.as 

100  00 

.48 

No.  2. 
89  40 

76 

2.94 

Mil k  Sugii r 

6.05 

Mineral  Matter  (asli) 

♦Containing  Nitrosen 

.85 

100.00 

.47 

The  following  table  presents  a  view  of  the  composition 
of  milk,  cream,  butter  and  American  cheese. 


Milk. 

Cream. 

Butter. 

Ara.Cheese. 

Fat 

4.00 
3.25 
4  ni) 

a5.oi 

2.20 
.s  a*; 

85.00 
..51 
.70 
.12 

13.67 

34.41 

(^aseine 

25.87 

SuRur 

5.01 

Ash 

Water 

.75               .50 
87.50          59.25 

5.93 

30.81 

100  00 

100.00 

loo.no 

102.00 

MDKE  BUTTER    OBTAINED  BY    MIXING    MILK    OF  DIFFKRFNT 

COW^S. 

The  question  has  been  started  recently  in  regard  to  the 


BUTTER    BOOK.  5j 

variation  in  the  size  of  the  fat  globules  in  the  milk  of 
cows  of  different  breeds,  and  it  has  been  asserted  that  by 
mingling  a  large  globuled  milk  with  a  small  globuled 
milk  a  loss  would  result  in  butter  making.  The  Practi- 
cal Farmer,  (Philadelj^hia),  makes  record  of  an  experi- 
ment touching  the  question.  It  says  the  experimental 
farm,  (Penn.)  made  an  experiment  to  test  the  gain  or  loss 
from  keeping  the  milk  of  each  cow  separate,  or  mixing, 
as  is  usually  done.  The  experiment  began  January  13, 
and  continued  one  week.  The  milk  of  each  cow  was  ac- 
curately weighed,  and  one-half  of  it  put  in  a  common 
milk  pan  and  skimmed  in  thirty-six  hours.  The  other 
half  thoroughly  mixed  with  half  the  milk  from  the  other 
cows,  and  all  treated  alike  as  near  as  possible.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  milk  room  was  kept  at  58  degrees  as  near 
as  possible.     No  souring  used  in  the  milk. 

The  cows  Avere  fed  each  morning  with  10  pounds  of 
corn  fodder,  8  pounds  of  sugar  beets,  and  i^  quarts  of 
corn  meal  and  wheat  bran,  equal  parts.  At  noon,  Avith 
one-third  sheaf  of  corn  fodder ;  in  the  evening,  with  the 
same  quantity  of  meal  to  each,  3  pounds  of  cut  hay  and 
7  pounds  of  uncut  hay,  all  fed  dry.  The  temperature  of 
the  atmosphere  was  noted  night  and  morning.  Result  of 
experiment  as  follows : 


i% 

^ 

:^ 

i 

^xJ 

a  . 

o 

a  . 

2^ 

Whole  N 
of  milh 
each  CO 

i! 

pq 

|35 

lbs.    oz. 

lbs.    oz. 

lbs.    oz. 

lbs.    oz. 

lbs.    oz. 

Julia  gave  in  seven  days 

227       1 

8     12 

4       1 

8       2 

27       9 

Beauty       " 

203       2 

fi       3 

2     10 

5       4 

Flora          "             •'         

164     U 

8       9 

S       8 

7 

23       5 

Bloss           "             '*         

153     15 

7       3 

3       8 

7 

21       9 

Mixed  Milk 

374 

31       1 

16       6 

22       8 

Whole  yield  of  butter  from  the  four  cows,  when  the  milk  was  kept  lbs.  oz. 

separate 13  n 

Whole  yield  from  mixed  milk .'.."'.  i6  6 

Loss  by  keeping  separate 2  11 

The  cows  came  in  fresh  as  follows : 

Julia Decemberll,  1874. 

Benuty "  16.    •' 

Flora '•  15,    •» 

Bloss November  18.    •' 

Tlie  cream  from  the  separated  lots  took  more  churning 
to  break  and  gather. 

The  superintendent  added  the    following   comments: 


52  WILLARD'S    PRACTICAL 

Although  the  experiment  did  not  have  much  practical 
bearing — for  no  dairyman  would  want  to  keep  his  milk 
separated  in  this  way — yet  it  is  a  satisfaction  to  feel  the 
most  convenient  way  in  this  case  is  also  the  best. 

I  am  sorry  we  cannot  give  any  satisfactory  explanation 
for  the  above  results.  We  guess,  however,  that  there  are 
two  reasons  why  the  mixture  of  poor  and  rich  milk  contains 
more  caseine,  is  heavier,  and  offers  more  resistance  to 
the  passage  of  the  butter  globules  to  the  surface.  The 
globules  in  the  poor  milk  are  also  smaller,  and  from  this 
cause  are  thrown  up  with  more  difficulty.  The  addition 
of  richer  milk  helps  in  both  these  respects. 

Again,  after  the  "  breaking "  of  the  butter,  as  it  is 
called,  the  smaller  globules  in  the  poor  milk  "  gather " 
with  difficulty ;  but  in  the  "  mixed "  milk,  the  larger 
globules  aid  in  forming  proper  milk  for  the  "  gathering  " 
process.  At  any  rate  the  evident  difficulty  in  gathering 
the  butter  from  poor  milk,  indicates  this  as  a  plausible 
solution. 

If  these  conclusions  are  correct,  there  would  be  an  ad- 
vantage in  adding  the  milk  of  the  Jersey  cow  to  that 
from  the  common  cow  or  other  breeds,  because  the  milk 
globules  of  the  Jersey  are  considerably  larger  than  those 
in  the  milk  of  other  breeds. 

UNIFORMITY   IN   THE    COMPOSITION    OF   MILK. 

•  Prof.  S.  W.  Johnson  of  Yale  College,  in  referring  to 
the  researches  of  Prof.  Alexander  Muller  and  others, 
in  Sweden,  says : 

Analyses  were  made  of  the  mixed  milk  of  fifteen  cows 
(five  Ayrshire,  five  Pembrokeshire,  and  five  Swedish 
cows),  which  were  highly  fed  and  milked  at  6^ — 7-^  A.  M., 
and  4^ — 6^  o'clock,  P.  M.  These  extending  throughout 
a  whole  year,  gave  the  following  average  result : — 

One  hundred  parts  of  milk  gave 

Dry  matter 12.81 

Water 87.19 

"lOO.OO 

The  above  dry  matter  consisted  of 

Fiit(butter) 4.05 

Albuminoids  (caseine,  etc.) 3.32 

Sugar  of  milk 4.71 

Various  Salts  , 0.73 

12.81 


BUTTER    BOOK.  53 

The  fluctuations  during  the  entire  period  were  remark- 
ably small.  The  lowest  percentage  of  water  observed 
was  85.92,  and  the  highest  88.35.  In  but  four  instances 
did  the  water  fall  below  86.6,  and  in  but  four  did  it  rise 
above  88.  The  composition  of  the  milk  of  uniformly 
well-fed  cows  is  therefore  very  uniform,  and  scarcely  va- 
ries throughout  the  year  whatever  may  be  the  change  in 
temperature,  weather,  &g. 

Morning  and  evening  milk  exhibit  a  constant,  though 
slight  difference  in  composition,  which  consists  simply  in 
containing  half  of  one  per  cent,  more  fat  at  night  than  in 
the  morning.  In  the  morning  milk  this  fat  is  replaced 
by  almost  precisely  the  same  quantity  of  water. 

THE   LESS    SPACE  OF   TIME    INTERVENING   BETWEEN   MILK- 
ING   THE   MORE   FAT. 

Further  investigation  showed  that  the  proportion  of  fat 
is  less  in  proportion  as  the  time  is  longer  between  the 
milkings.     Thus,  milk  taken  after  an  interval  of 

10  hours,  contained 4.36  percent,  of  fat. 

11  "  "  ;4.31  " 

12  "  •'  3.97  " 

13  •  "  3.97  " 

14  '•  •'  3.51  " 

Taking  into  account  the  greater  quantity  of  milk  ob- 
tained in  the  morning,  the  actual  amount  of  fat  yielded 
by  the  cow  is  rather  more  at  morning  than  at  night. 

PERCENTAGR  OF  CREAM  AND  BUTTER  IN  MILK. 

In  making  butter,  100  parts  of  milk  yield,  on  the  aver- 
age, in  round  numbers,  the  following  proportions  of 
cream,  butter,  etc.,  provided  the  cream  rises  in  a  cool 
apartment,  so  that  no  sensible  evaporation  of  water  takes 
place : 

Cream 10 

Skimmed  mUk 90 

100  milk. 

The  ten  parts  of  cream  consist  of 

Buttermilk 6.0 

Butter 3.9)     Calculated 

Water  removed  from  butter  by  salting 0.1)  witliout  salt. 

10.0  cream. 


54 


WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 


The  average  percentage  composition  of  these  products 
is  given  in  the  subjoined  table : 


New 
milk. 

Skimmed 
milk. 

Cream. 

Butter- 
milk. 

Buttertl  Brine* 

Fat  (butter) 

Albuminoids* 

4.00 

!S 

0.75 

87.50 

0.55 
3.37 
463 
0.78 
90.64 

35.00 
2.20 
3.05 
0.50 

59.25 

1.67 
3.^ 
4.61 
0.77 
89.62 

85.00 
0.51 
0.70 
0.12 

13.67 

0.00 
0  39 

Milk  sugar 

Various  salts 

Water 

3.81 
0.86 
^.91 

Tot?l 

100.00 

100.00 

100.0 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

*  Caseine  and  albumen. 
+  Unsalted. 


*  Brine  that  separates  on  working  after  salting,  salt  not  included. 

Butter  is  produced  by  the  coalescence  of  the  small  par- 
ticles of  oil  which  are  suspended  in  milk,  and  partially 
separated  in  the  cream.  Chemically  considered,  it  is  a 
mixture  of  oleine  and  palmitin,  with  a  trace  of  phos- 
phate and  other  salts,  and  certain  odoriferous  fats  or  oils, 
from  which  it  derives  its  flavor, 

THEORY    OF    SOURING. 

He  remarks  further,  that  stirring  of  the  cream — as  for 
instance,  in  the  cream  pot — does  not  promote  souring  but 
rather  hinders  it,  by  increasing  access  of  air.  The  cir- 
cumstances that  influence  the  rapidity  of  souring  are 
chiefly  temperature  and  access  of  air.  When  milk  sours 
it  is  because  of  the  formation  of  lactic  acid  from  the  milk 
sugar.  This  chemical  change  is  the  result  of  the  growth 
of  a  microscopic  vegetable  organism  which,  according  to 
Hallier's  last  investigations,  is  of  the  same  origin  as 
common  3^east.  Like  common  yeast,  this  plant  requires 
oxygen  for  its  development.  This  it  gathers  from  the 
air,  if  the  latter  have  access  ;  but  in  comparative  absence 
of  air — as  w^hen  growing  in  milk — it  decomposes,  the  lat- 
ter (its  sugar)  and  the  lactic  acid  is  a  chief  result  of  this 
metamorphosis. 

If  milk  which,  by  exposure  to  the  air,  has  had  the 
croscopic  germs  of  the  ferment  plant  sown  in  it  be 
then  excluded  from  the  air  as  much  as  possible,  the  fer- 
ment in  its  growth  is  necessitated  to  decompose  the  milk 
sugar,  and  hence  the  milk  rapidly  sours.  On  the  other 
hand,  exposure  to  the  air  supplies  the  ferment  partially 
with  free  oxygen  and  the  milk  remains  sweet  for  a  longer 
period.  Such  is  the  theory  of  the  change.  And  this  is 
in  accordance  with  the  experience  of  dairymen,  and  ex- 
plains why  milk  is  often  found  loppered  at  the  bottom  of 


BUTTER    BCOE. 


55 


a  pan,  while  at  the  top  there  is  no  appearance  of  coagu- 
lation. 

RUTTER. 

We  may  now  pass  on  to  the  consideration  of  butter 
and  note  some  of  the  characteristic  difterences  which  this 
substance  has  in  its  relation  with  other  animal  fats. 

If  we  consider  how  extensively  butter  is  consumed ; 
how  highly  it  is  relished  by  all  classes  in  the  civilized 
world ;  how  nearly  it  meets  the  taste  of  mankind,  even 
from  childliood  onward  to  old  age — we  might  naturally 
infer  that  there  is  something  in  the  constitution  of  butter 
which  particularly  adapts  it  as  an  important  element  of 
our  food ;  that  it  is,  so  to  speak,  more  highly  organized, 
more  delicately  flavored,  and  thus  in  better  form  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  digestion  and  assimilation  than  any 
other  fat  which  has  been  separated  from  the  relative  con- 
dition it  originally  occuj^ied  in  the  animal  economy. 

By  churning,  as  is  well  known,  the  caseine  shells  are 
broken  and  the  contents  of  the  milk  globules  are  made 
into  butter.  Butter,  according  to  Voelcker,  consist 
mainly  of  a  mixture  of  several  fats,  amongst  Avhich  pal- 
mit  in,  asolid,crystillizable  substance  is  the  most  important. 
Palmitin,  with  a  little  stearine,  constitutes  about  68  per 
cent,  of  pure  butter.  Mixed  with  these  solid  fats  are 
about  30  per  cent,  of  oleine  (a  liquid,  fatty  matter)  and 
aboiit  two  per  cent,  of  odoriferous  oils.  The  peculiar 
flavor  and  odor  of  butter  are  owing  to  the  presence  of 
this  small  proportion  of  these  peculiar  oils,  namely — buty- 
rine,  caproine  and  capryline. 

In  butter  as  it  comes  to  the  table  we  find,  besides  these 
fatty  matters,  about  16  to  18  per  cent,  of  water,  one  to 
two  per  cent,  of  salt  and  small,  variable  quantities  of 
caseine  shells.  The  more  perfectly  butter  is  washed  and 
freed  of  its  buttermilk,  the  better'  the  butter  keeps ;  for 
caseine,  on  exposure  to  air  in  a  moist  stite  (especially  in 
warm  weather)  becomes  rapidly  changed  into  a  ferment, 
which,  acting  on  the  volatile,  fatty  matters  of  butter,  re- 
solves them  into  glycerine  and  butyric  acid,  caproic  acid 
and  caprylic  acid. 

The  occurrence  of  these  volatile,  uncombined,  fatty 
acids  in  rancid  butter,  not  only  spoils  the  flavor,  but  ren- 
ders it  more  or  less  unwholesome. 


^Q  WILLARD'S    PRACTICAL 

COMPOSITION    OF    BUTTER. 

Cows'  butter,  according  to  Bromeis,  has  the  following 
composition : 

Margarate  of  glycerine  [Margarine] 68 

Hutyroleate  of  glycerine  I Oleine] dO 

ButyratefButyriiie],  Caproate.    [Capruine]  and  Caprate  of  glyce- 
rine.   [Caprine] 2 

Butter 100 

The  same  authority  gives  the  following  as  the  formula 
for  the  fatty  acids  of  butter : 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  FATTY  ACIDS  OF  BUTTER. 

Margaricacid C34,  H3.3.  03. 

Butyrolic  acid 034,  H30,  04. 

Butyric  acid C8.    H6,    03, 

Caproicacid 012,  H 9.    oa. 

Capric  acid 018,  H14.  03. 

The  marrow  of  large  bones,  says  Berzelius,  is  abso- 
lutely of  the  same  nature  as  the  other  fat  of  the  same 
animal.  The  difference  of  flavor  which  exists  between 
the  marrow  of  boiled  bones  and  ordinary  melted  fat  de- 
pends on  foreign  matters  derived  from  the  liquids  in  the 
cellular  tissue  by  which  the  fat  is  surrounded,  and  espe- 
cially by  the  extractiform  substance,  which  is  insoluble  in 
alcohol. 

COMPOSITION    OF   LIQUID    FAT   UST   MARROW. 

The  proportion  of  liquid  fats  contained  in  marrow,  ac- 
cording to  Bracoxnot,  is  as  follows : 

SOMB  Fat.  Liquid  Fat. 

(Stearine.)  (oleine.) 

Beef-marrow 76  24 

Mutton-marrow 26  74 

Mutton  fat,  as  is  w^ell  known,  is  softer  than  fat  from 
beef,  and  the  larger  proportion  cf  oleine  in  its  composi- 
tion readily  explains  the  reason. 

By  subjecting  animal  fats  to  pressure,  Braconxot 
procured  the  following  proportions  of  stearine  and  ole- 
ine from  the  fats  named  below : 

In  100  parts.                                                             Solid  Fat.  Liquid  Fat. 

(Ste:irine,)  (Oleixe) 

Hogs'  lard 38  ffl 

Goosefat 3i  fe 

Duckfat 28  72 

Turkeyfat 20  74 

Hogs'  lard  contains,  besides  stearine  and  oleine,  some 
margarine.  Mutton  suet  consists  of  stearine,  margarine, 
oleine,  hircine  and  hircic  acids.  Like  butter,  the  pecu- 
liar flavor  of  their  fats  is  due  to  the  volatile  oils.     Butter 


BUTTER    BOOK.  5^ 

varies  in  its  proportion  of  margarine  and  oleine  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  food  and  the  period  of  the  year. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  stearine  is  a  leading  constituent 
in  the  animal  fats  which  have  been  named.  This  ingre- 
dient is  in  very  small  proportion  in  butter,  the  palmitine, 
or,  according  to  some  authors,  margarine,  taking  its  place. 
Thus,  in  beefs  marrow  we  have  76  per  cent,  of  stearine, 
and  in  butter  68  per  cent,  of  palmitine,  with  a  little  stear- 
ine. The  oleine  in  butter  is  30  per  cent.;  in  beef  fat,  24 
per  cent.  The  same  remarkable  difference  will  be  noticed 
in  the  other  fats  when  compared  with  butter. 

In  the  so-called  "  oleomargarine,"  or  beef  suet  butter, 
the  stearine  is  expelled  under  great  pressure,  while,  in 
order  to  get  flavor  from  the  volatile  oils,  the  "  oleomar- 
garine "  is  mingled  with  milk  or  buttermilk  and  churned 
in  the  ordinary  way. 

I  have  referred  to  the  proportion  of  water  and  other 
substances  not  fat  found  in  ordinary  butter  and  which  are 
not  expelled  in  the  process  of  washing  and  working  out 
the  buttermilk.  These  ingredients,  the  water,  the  cheese 
or  caseine,  and  the  sugar  of  milk,  altogether  amount  to 
from  10  to  16  per  cent,  in  ordinary  butter.  It  is  very 
difficult  to  get  rid  of  all  the  cheesy  matter,  as  it  is  now  in 
an  insoluble  state  ;  but  it  may  be  removed  to  a  very  great 
extent  by  washing  the  butter  in  repeated  potions  of 
water  or  in  saturated  brine,  thus  decanting  off  the  parti- 
cles of  caseine.  In  the  best  kinds  of  butter  the  cheesy 
matter  rarely  amounts  to  more  than  one  per  cent.  In  the 
inferior  varieties  it  not  unfrequently  averages  from  six  to 
seven  per  cent. 

EXPLANATION"    OF    RAXCIDITY    IN    BUTTEK. 

Now,  as  a  general  rule,  we  know  that  the  more  caseine 
that  is  left  in  butter  the  more  apt  it  is  to  become  rancid. 
"  To  render  this  intelligible,"  says  a  writer  in  Morton's 
Cyclopedia,  "  attention  must  be  given  to  the  normal  in- 
gredients of  pure  butter.  Margarine  and  oleine  consists 
of  margaric  and  oleic  acids  united  to  an  organic  base 
called  oxide  of  lipyle.  Margaric  acid  consists  of  34 
equivalents  of  carbon;  33  equivalents  of  hydrogen,  and  3 
equivalents  of  oxygen,  while  oleic  acid  is  constituted  of 
36  equivalents  of  carbon ;  33  equivalents  of  hydrogen, 
and  3  equivalents  of  oxygen." 


58  WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 

It  is  known  that  the  latter  acid  absorbs  oxygen  from 
the  air  with  great  avidity,  producing  peculiar  compounds, 
among  which,  however,  margaricacid  has  not  been  recog- 
nized ;  still  the  abstraction  of  two  equivalents  of  carbor, 
in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid,  would  be  sufficient  for  its 
conversion,  and  this  formation  is  so  simple  and  common 
an  occurrence  in  the  organism  of  animals  that  oleic  acid 
raay  be  transferred  into  margaric  acid  during  the  forma- 
tion of  milk,  thus  producing  more  of  the  solid  fat  at  one 
time  than  at  another,  and  causing  the  variations  in  the 
firmness  of  the  latter  made  from  it.  It  is,  however,  quite 
gratuitous  to  suppose,  Avith  some  authors,  that  this  trans- 
formation takes  place  during  the  process  of  churning. 

When  oleic  acid  absorbs  oxygen  from  the  air  it  acquires 
a  very  rancid  smell,  which  is  one  of  the  causes  of  rancidity 
in  butter.  But  the  main  cause  is  the  production  of  butyric, 
capric,  caproic  and  caprylic  acids.  These  acids  are  prob- 
ably not  present  in  any  quantity  in  perfectly  fresh  butter, 
out  they  are  quickly  formed  by  the  cheese  left  in  it  acting 
on  the  sugar  of  milk. 

Butyric  acid  has  an  odor  of  human  excrement ;  caproi« 
acid  of  sweat;  capric  acid  has  a  rank  smell,  resembling  a 
goat,  while  caprylic  acid  is  the  only  one  which  is  not  ob- 
noxious to  the  senses.  These  acids  are  volatile  and 
soluble  in  water,  and  as  rancidity  of  butter  depends  in  a 
great  degree  upon  their  being  present  in  appreciable 
quantity,  a  knowledge  of  this  fact  may  be  employed  in 
depriving  butter  of  its  rancidity. 

HOTV    RAXCID    BUTTER   MAT    BE    PURIFIED. 

For  this  purpose  it  should  be  melted  in  twice  its  weight 
of  boiling  water  and  well  shaken  with  it.  By  this  means 
the  acids  are  dissolved  and  partly  volatilized,  the  rancidity 
being  thus  removed.  At  all  times  butter  may  be  purified 
by  repeated  melting,  with  fresh  portions  of  water,  the 
pure  oil  rising  to  the  surface,  leaving  the  impurities  in  the 
water.  The  butter  loses  its  consistence  by  this  operation, 
but  that  may  be  restored  to  it,  at  least  to  a  great  extent, 
by  pouring  it,  when  melted,  into  a  large  quantity  of  ice- 
cold  water. 

A  process  for  purifying  rancid  butter  was  invented  a 
few  years  ago,  which  consisted  in  cutting  th^e  butter  into 
small  lumps  and  spreading  them  out  in  a  large  vat.    Then 


BUTTER    BOOK.  59 

hot  water  is  thrown  down  in  a  shower  from  a  considerable 
distance  upon  the  mass.  The  melted  butter  rises  to  the 
surface  and  the  impurities  are  drawn  oif  Avith  the  water. 
Then  the  butter  is  subjected  to  a  shower  of  cold  water, 
and  in  this  way,  by  repeated  washings,  according  to  the 
rancidity  of  the  butter,  it  is  freed  from  the  objectionable 
taste  a!id  odor,  and  finally  it  is  again  worked  and  salted. 
As  the  formation  of  the  badly-smelling  volatile  acids 
depends  upon  the  presence  of  caseine,  this  mode  of  purifi- 
cation removes  the  injurious  ingredient.  It  must  be 
remarked,  however,  that  the  butter  becomes  less  pleasant 
to  the  taste,  the  water  having  taken  up  the  small  quantity 
of  foreign  substances  which  give  to  fresh  butter  its  fra- 
grance and  agreeable  taste.  Some  of  the  compounds  of 
caprylic  acid  have  a  fragrant  odor  like  that  of  the  pine- 
apple, but  the  smell  of  capryline  itself  is  little  known. 

PROF.  Caldwell's  views  on-  the  composition  of  butter. 
Prof  Caldavell,  in  an  address  at  Utica,  N.  Y.,  says : 
Cow  butter,  in  the  pure  state,  is  a  yellowish,  slightly  acid 
lat,  which  melts  at  about  70  degrees  Fahr.  It  is  com- 
posed, for  the  main  part,  of  the  three  glycerides — oleine, 
palmatine  and  stearine — but  further  than  that  its  compo- 
sition is  more  complicated  than  that  of  any  other  animal 
fat ;  and  in  fact  the  exact  composition  of  the  small  residue 
that  remains  after  taking  out  the  three  glycerides  named 
seems  to  be  hardly  settled.  According  to  most  authori- 
ties it  is  a  mixture  of  butyriiie,  caproine  and  caprine,  and 
further,  Chevreul,  who  is  one  of  the  best  authorities  on 
the  subject  of  the  composition  of  fats,  maintains  that  there 
is  in  the  butter  a  peculiar  combination  between  a  part  of 
the  butyi-ine  and  the  stearine,  forming  what  he  calls 
butyroleine. 

SUPPOSED    COMPOSITION    OF    MARGARINE. 

On  the  other  hand  Haitz,  who  has  worked  up  the  com- 
position of  the  fats  almost  as  extensively  as  Chevreul, 
and  who  was  the  first  to  maintain  that  the  so-called  mar- 
garine is  only  a  mixture  of  stearine  and  palmitine,  has 
found  in  butter  still  two  other  substances — butyrine  and 
myrstrine. 

VACciNic  acid. 

Another  chemist  has  found  in  certain  instances,  in  the 


QQ  WILLARD'S    PRACTICAL 

place  of  butyric  and  caproic  acids,  the  acids  of  butyrine 
and  caproine,  another  acid  which  he  called  vaccinic  acid. 

CAUSE    OF    KANCIDITY. 

The  rancidity  of  butter  is  due,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
rancidity  of  other  fats,  to  the  decomposition  of  the  gly- 
cerides,  setting  the  acid  of  the  glyceride  free ;  in  butter 
it  is  the  butyrine  and  perhaps  the  odoriferons  glycerides 
which  suffer  this  change  most  readily. 

THE    GLYCERIDES. 

Again  he  says  : — "  From  what  I  have  given  as  the  re- 
sults of  the  examination  of  butter  by  various  chemists,  it 
Avould  appear  that  it  is  distinguished  from  all  the  other 
animal  fats  by  the  great  number  of  glycerides  of  which 
it  is  composed.  The  complete  separation  of  these  glycer- 
ides from  one  another  is  about  impossible,  so  that  we  can 
form  at  the  most  only  an  approximate  estimate  of  their 
relative  proportions  in  the  various  fats. 

VoELCKER  estimates  that  palmatine,  together  with  a 
little  stearine,  makes  up  68  per  cent,  of  the  fats  of  butter, 
30  per  cent,  is  oleine  and  two  per  cent,  is  composed  of 
the  odoriferous  fats,  butyrine  and  its  companions. 

MORE    OLEIXE    IX    SUMMER    BUTTER. 

As  every  one  knows,  the  proportion  of  liquid  and  solid 
fat  varies,  according  to  the  season.  Boussingault  found 
that  summer  butter  contained  about  60  per  cent,  of  oleine, 
while  winter  butter  contained  only  about  35  per  cent. 

The  oils  and  fats  are  composed  essentially  and  mainly 
of  the  three  glycerides — oleine,  palmatine  and  stearine; 
or  of  four — if  there  is  such  a  glyceridc  as  margarine — 
and  when  all  these  are  taken  out  there  is  a  small  residue 
remaining,  concerning  the  composition  of  w^hich  we  are 
yet  to  some  extent  uncertain  and  to  which  the  character- 
istic flavor  and  odor  of  each  fat  is  due.  The  oils  and  fats 
contain  when  first  extracted,  several  impurities,  such  as 
albuminous  matters,  coloring  matters,  mucus,  &c. 

ARTIFICIAL   BUTTER. 

I  have  now  presented  the  more  recent  views  of  scien- 
tists in  regard  to  the  fat  found  in  milk,  as  compared  with 
other  animal  fats,  and  a  brief  allusion  maybe  made  to  the 
question  of  converting  these  latter  into  a  form  which  may 
resemble  butter  so  "^s  to  be  substituted  for  it. 


BUTTER    BOOK.  «, 

We  have  our  oleomargarine  factories,  in  which  oleo- 
margarine, or  artificial  butter,  is  manufactured  in  lai-o-e 
quantities :  but  as  the  product  is  devoid  of  that  peculiar 
aroma  and  delicate  flavor  which  belongs  to  genuine  but- 
ter, I  doubt  whether  it  ever  can  be  made  a  complete  and 
successful  substitute.  In  other  words,  genuine  dairy  but- 
ter of  fine  quality  must  always  be  in  demand  and  find  a 
ready  sale.  Prof.  Caldwell  says :  "  To  any  one  who 
understands  the  true  nature  of  the  fats,  the  prejudice 
against  oleomargarine  butter,  or  a  cheese  containing  fat 
fi-om  the  caul  of  an  ox,  instead  of  the  bag  of  the  cow, 
because  it  is  supposed  not  to  be  so  clean  and  wholesome, 
appears  somewhat  nonsensical." 

Oleo-margarine  however,  should  go  into  the  market 
under  its  own  name,  and  if  it  is  to  obtain  favor,  it  should 
be  on  its  own  merits  and  not  under  the  name  of  genuine 
butter.  •  ^ 


FARM  DAIRIES. 


The  great  bulk  of  poor  butter  comes  from  the  farm 
dairies.  The  causes  are  various ;  the  most  important  of 
which  are  lack  of  cleanliness,  the  want  of  proper  dairy 
utensils,  the  need  of  a  good  dairy  room,  or  place  for 
setting  the  milk,  neglect  in  manipulating  the  cream  at 
the  right  time,  unskilful  working,  packing  and  storing 
the  butter,  and  finally  lack  of  knowledge  in  a  part  or 
the  whole  of  the  process  required  for  making  a  prime 
article.  Farm  dairies  have  this  advantage  over  the  cream- 
eries, there  is  no  hauling  of  the  milk  required  and  its 
condition  can  be  watched^  and  kept  under  the  immediate 
control  of  the  manufacturer  from  the  time  it  is  drawn 
from  the  cow  until  the  butter  is  obtained.  With  this 
advantage  we  might  naturally  expect,  with  all  needful 
appliances,  and  skill  in  manufacturing,  the  best  butter 
could  be  made  at  the  farm  dairies.     And, such  indeed,  is 


62 


WILLARD  S   PRACTICAL 


often  the  fact,  and  when  poor  butter  is  the  rule  we  must 
look  for  the  cause  in  some  defect  connected  with  the 
dairy  and  its  management. 

We  have  alluded  to  a  number  of  the  leading  requisites 
for  the  production  of  good  milk,  the  importance  of  clean- 
liness in  the  stable  and  in  the  drawing  of  the  milk  from 
the  udder,  and  a  word  may  now  be  added  in  regard  to 
dairying  utensils. 

PAILS. 

Wooden  pails  are  largely  in  use,  and  they  are  a 
nuisance  in  a  well  regulated  dairy  on  account  of  the  dif- 
ficulty of  keeping  them  sweet  and  clean. 
Milk  pails  should  always  be  of  tin,  and 
in  cleansing  dairy  utensils  after 
thorough  Avashing,  hoilirig  hot  water 
should  be  used  or  wh'at  is  better,  if  it 
can  be  had,  a  jet  of  hot  steam  thrown 
into  all  the  parts  which  have  come  in 
contact  with  milk,  for  in  this  way  the 
Pig.  a  germs  of  ferment   are  destroyed. 

Fig.  6  illustrates  a  pail  of  the  Iron  Clad  Company  of 
New  York  City.  These  pails  are  made  of  iron  and 
tinned  after  they  are  put  together.  Very  heavy  mate- 
rial is  used  in  them  and  they  are  substantial  and  strong. 

THE    CREAM    STRAINER. 

The  cream  strainer  is  often  found  useful  in  farm  dairies. 
When  milk  is  set  in  shallow  pans  in  the  old  way,  portions 
of  the  cream  get  thick  and  are 
mingled  with  hard  dry  particles,  or 
"  cream  skins  "  and  the  butter  in 
consequence  is  liable  to  contain 
"  white  ca])s"  or  be  flecked.  The 
cream  strainer  in  such  cases  is  of 
advantage,  as  it  reduces  the  cream 
to  a  uniform  consistency  in  all  its 
parts,  breaking  down  the  skins  and 
preparing   the    cream,    so   that   in 


Fig.  7. 


churning    the    butter     will    come 


evenly. 

In  Fig.  7  is  an  illustration  of  Baker's  Excelsior  Cream 
Strainer,  the  best  we  have  seen  for  the  purpose. 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


63 


CHUKNS. 

There  is  no  implement  of  the  dairy  which  has  occupied 
the  attention  of  inventors  so  much  as  the  churn.  The 
number  of  patents  issued  on  this  article  may  be  well  ex- 
pressed under  the  name  of  legion,  and  yet  it  is  the  almost 
universal  expression  among  the  but- 
ter makers  that  nothing  has  been  in- 
vented that  will  make  any  better  but- 
ter than  the  old-fashioned  dash  churn. 
The  objection  to  the  dash  churn  is 
that  it  requires  a  considerable  amount 
of  power  to  keep  it  in  motion,  and 
various  plans  have  been  devised  to 
lessen  the  labor  of  its  operation  wiien 
worked  by  hand. 

In  Fig.  8  is  an  illustration  of  a 
churn  used  for  small  quantities  of 
cream,  a  gearing  being  attached  by 
which  th(i  labor  of  working  by  hand 
is  lessened. 

In  using  the  dash  churn  the  dasher 
should  fill  about  three-fourths  of  the 
section  of  the  churn,  as  the  cream  m| 
will  be  subjected  to  a  yielding  pres- 
sure at  each  stroke,  the  butter  glob- 
ules being  thus  divested  of  the  mem- 
brane that  surrounds  them,by  pressure  rather  than  by  wear- 
ing or  friction.  Among  the  churns  that  have  acquired  noto- 
riety for  their  excellence  and  which  may  be  recoinmended 
in  farm  dairies  not  only  on  account  of  their  making  good 
butter,  but  for  the  ease  with  wliich  they  may  be  worked 
and  kept  clean,  the  most  prominent  perhaps* is  the  Blan- 
CEiARD  Chur^,  manufactured  bv  P.  Bj.anchard's  Soxs, 
Concord,  N.  H.  It  has  been  long  before  the  public  and 
IS  universally  esteemed.  It  is  arrancred  so  as  to  Avork 
the  butter  free  from  buttermilk  without  change  of  dasher, 
I  he  manufacturers  furnish  a  pullv  for  power,  which  can 
be  applied  to  any  sized  churn,  *in  the  same  place  and 
manner  as  tb'  crank. 

Whipple's  Rectaxgulap.  Churn,  manufactured  by 
CoRxisH  &  Curtis,  Fort  Atkinson,  Wis.,  of  which  we 
give  an  illustration    in  Fig.  9,  is  of  recent  invention' and 


64 


WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 


well  adapted  to  farm  dairies.  It  is  simply  a  cubical  box, 
and  hangs  suspended  on  gudgeons  from  the  two  diagonal 
corners  of  the  cube.  As  the  box  is  revolved  the  cream 
constantly  falls  from  corner  to  corner,  thus  giving  a  more 
diversified  agitation  than  when  in  the  box  churn  as  ordi- 
narily arranged.  It  is 
more  easily  operated 
than  the  ordinary  re- 
volving  box  churn,  and 
the  butter  forms  in 
coarse  grains,  its  opera- 
tions in  this  respect 
being  superior  for  a 
first-class  product. 

CHURX   POWERS. 

In  small  dairies  a 
dog  or  sheep  power  is 
ft  often  found  very  ser- 
I  viceable  for  doing  the 
churning.  There  are  a 
number  of  different  de- 
vices for  the  purpose, 
but  one  of  the  best  is 
a  machine  constructed 
on  the  railway  principle.  It  is  very  much  liked  by 
many,  and  is  a  cheap  and  efficient  power.  Where  large 
quantities  of  cream  are  required  to  be  churned,  horse  power 
will  be  employed  and  the  most  economical  perhaps  is  the 
sweep,  through  the  railway  principle  is  often  used. 

BUTTER     AVORKERS. 

Quite  a  number  of  butter  workers  have  been  intrO' 
duced  from  time  to  time,  some  of  them  useful  and  other? 
liable  to  injure  the  ijrain  of  the  butter  from  their  pecu- 
liar construction.  The  Eureka  Butter  Worker  in- 
vented a  few  years  since  by  J.  P.  Corbin  of  Whitney's 
Point,  N.  Y.,  will  be  found,  on  many  accounts,  conven- 
ient for  farm  dairies.  The  illustration,  Fig.  10,  shows 
its  construction. 

Rubber  mops  for  cleansing  floors  of  dairy  rooms,  to- 
gether with  soap,  brushes,  and  "  sal-soda,"  for  keeping 
dairy  utensils  sweet  und  clean  will  be  found  exceedingly 


Fig.  9. 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


useful  and  I  might  say    almost  indispensable  for  good 
dairy  management. 


FIG.  10. 
FARM   DAIRY    MILK-HOUSE. 

Immense  quantities  of  poor  butter  result  from  the  milk 
being  set  in  improper  places.  The  kitchen  pantry,  the 
living  room  and  the  cellar  used  to  store  vegetables  and 
other  family  supplies,  will  impart  peculiar  taints  to  the 
milk  and  cream,  in  such  a  degree  as  to  be  destructive  to 
flavor,  even  though  the  butter,  in  other  respects  be  skil- 
fully handled.  Dairy  rooms  so  situated  as  to  catch  the 
odor  from  the  pig-sty,  the  cess-pool,  or  other  decomposing 
filth,  cannot  be  used  for  making  good  butter.  There 
should  be  a  freedom  from  hlth  and  impurities  of  every 
description  about  the  milk-house,  and  the  milk  should  be 
delivered  by  the  milkers  in  an  ante-room  or  some  point 
outside  the  milk  room,  and  from  thence  conveyed  to 
the  place  where  it  is  to  be  set  for  cream,  and  in  this  way 
the  fumes  and  the  litter  from  the  stable  may  be  kept  from 
the  milk  room.  When  milkers  are  allowed  to  come  di- 
rectly from  the  stable  to  the  milk  room  it  will  be  impos- 
sible to  keep  the  latter  place  sweet  and  clean  for  the 
times  being.  There  are  hundreds  of  butter  makers,  we 
are  aware,  to  whom  the  importance  of  this  single 
point  cannot  be  too  strongly  urged,  since  they  often  con- 


66 


WILLARD'S    PRACTICAL 


sider  many  little  things  of  tliis  kind,  in  regard  to  dairy 
management  too  insigniiicant  to  merit  attention.  But  in 
batter  making  the  observance  of  little  things  is  often  the 
great  secret  of  success. 

^RATIOX. 

Milk  is  undoubtedly,  improved  by  aeration,  the  animal 
odors  in  this  way  passing  off  as  the  warm  milk  is  exposed 
to  the  air.  But  it  should  be  observed  that  when  aeration 
is  applied,  the  surrounding  atmosphere  should  be  sweet, 
and  free  from  offensive  odors.  Milk  aerated  in  an  atmos- 
phere loaded  with  the  emanations  of  putrid  matter — 
vegetable  or  animal — would  be  likely  to  absorb  odors, 
and  hence  caution  should  be  taken  that  the  jeration 
be  not  made  in  the  stable  or  other  places  where  the  air  is 
tainted  with  disagreeable  odors.  There  had  been  a  num- 
ber of  devices  for  aerating  milk,  but  perhaps  the  simplest 
and  most  easily  applied,  is  Bussey's  "Deodorising 
Straixer  and  Cooler." 

It  is  simply  a  strainer  pail,  raised  about  two  feet  above 
the  can  and  arranged  so  that  the  milk  falls  in  a  spray  into 
the  can. 

FORCING   AIR   INTO   THE    MILK. 

Jones  &  Faulkner  of  Utiea,  N.  Y.,  have  brought 

out  a  handy  device 
for  terating  milk  by 
forcing  air  into  it. 
We  give  an  illustra- 
tion showing  the 
manner  in  which  this 
is  effected  in  Fig.  11. 
Either  of  the  a3ra- 
tors  here  described, 
will  be  found  ex- 
ceedingly useful  at 
farm  dairies  and  they 
are  of  very  great  ad- 
vantage in  preparing 
milk  at  the  farm  in 
order  that  it  may  be 
delivered  sound  and 


FTG.  n. 


in  good  condition  at  the  factory 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


67 


CONTROLLING   TEMPERATURE    IN   DAIRY    ROOMS. 

But,  however  well  we  may  have  guarded  all  the  con- 
ditions for  getting  milk  in  good  order  to  the  dairy  room, 
there  must  be  some  means  of  controlling  its  temperature  or 
the  highest  success  cannot  be  obtained  in  butter  making. 

Among  American  butter  makers  the  best  temperature 
for  holding  the  milk  while  the  cream  is  rising  is  found  to 
be  from  t56  degrees  to  60  degrees,  Fahr.  The  range  of 
temperature  should  go  no  higher  than  65  degrees.  In  a 
climate  so  variable  as  ours,  it  is  evident  some  attention 
must  be  given  to  the  construction  of  the  milk  room  or 
the  manner  of  setting  the  milk,  in  order  to  maintain  a 
uniform  temperature,  as  above  named ;  otherwise,  we 
shall  be  liable  to  have  a  constant  change  going  on  in  the 
milk,  the  temperature  rising  or  falling,  often  many  degrees 
from  day  to  day.  The  old  method  of  setting  milk  in 
pans  and  in  an  ordinary  room,  has  always  been  found 
objectionable  during  hot  weather  and  to  be  the  source  of 
serious  trouble  and  loss,  simply  on  account  of  the  difficulty 
of  maintaining  a  suitable  temperature.  The  employment 
of  the  house-cellar  was  perhaps  the  earliest  improvement 
on  the  old  plan  of  setting  milk. 

THE    SPRING   HOUSE. 

The  first  introduction  of  the  water  system  for  control- 
ing  the  temperature  of  milk,  dates  a  long  away  back  in 
the  spring  house.  These  I  have  found  existing  in  the 
older  States,  many  of  tliem  built  by  the  early  settlers  of 
the  country,  who  often  located  their  dwellings  near  a 
good,  flowing  spring,  and  not  unfrequently  erecting  a  sub- 
stantial and  elaborate  stone  or  brick  structure  over  the 
spring.  In  some  of  the  older  settled  parts  of  Virginia 
the  spring  house  is  a  distinguished  feature.  It  is  a  well- 
built  structure,  (usually  of  stone,)  immediately  over  or  in 
close  proximity  to,  a  large  spring  of  living  water.  The 
spring  liouses  are  for  the  most  part  well  arranged,  and 
some  of  them  quite  elaborate.  The  earth  is  excavated  at 
the  bottom  and  a  wall  built  up  on  the  inside,  so  as  to 
form  a  vat  between  it  and  the  outer  wall  or  side  of  the 
building.  Not  unfrequently  these  vats  are  on  two  sides 
of  the  structure,  or  there  may  be  a  partition  wall,  so  as 
to  form  two  or  three  vats  for  the  reception  of  water,  and 
the  arrangement  is  such  that  by  closing  the  outlet  in  part, 


QQ  WILLARD'S    PRACTICAL 

the  water  may  be  raised  in  tlie  vats  a  foot  or  more,  as 
desired.  The  floor  of  tlie  spring  house  is  usually  of  stone 
flagging,  either  cemented  or  laid  in  mortar  so  as  to  be 
dry  and  easily  kept  clean.  Sometimes  the  entrance  is  on 
a  level  with  the  ground,  and  sometimes  there  is  a  flight 
of  steps,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  location. 

The  spring  house  is  generally  surrounded  with  trees 
which  protect  the  structure  from  the  sun's  rays,  thus  serv- 
ing to  maintain  a  tolerably  uniform  and  much  lower  tem- 
perature in  the  milk  room  during  hot  weather  than  that 
of  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  The  milk  is  set  in  pans 
holding  from  eight  to  twelve  quarts,  the  pans  usually  being 
deeper  and  not  so  broad  as  the  old-fashioned  pans,  and 
they  are  provided  with  a  bail  so  as  to  be  more  conven- 
iently handled  in  lowering  the  milk  to  the  water  pool  or 
raising  it  therefrom.  With  a  good,  cool  spring,  and  a 
properly  constructed  spring  house,  fine  butter  can  be  pro- 
duced. 

PENNSYLVANIA    SPKING   HOUSE    AND    PHILADELPHIA 
BUTTER. 

The  celebrated  Philadelphia  butter  comes  mainly  from 
Chester,  Lancaster  and  Delaware  Counties,  Pennsylvania. 
The  milk  is  set  on  the  same  principle  as  that  above  des- 
scribed,  but  the  dairy  structures  are  neater  and  more 
carefully  built. 

The  spring-house  is  about  18  feet  by  24  feet,  built  of 
stone,  with  its  foundation  set  deeply  in  the  hill-side,  the 
floor  being  about  four  feet  below  the  level  of  the  ground 
at  the  down  hill-side.  The  floor  is  of  oak,  laid  on  sand  or 
gravel  ;  this  is  flowed  with  spring  water  to  the  depth  of 
three  inches,  and  at  this  hight  the  flowing  water  passes 
out  into  a  tank  at  the  lower  side  of  the  spring-house.  The 
milk,  when  drawn  from  the  cow,  is  strained  into  deep  pans 
which  are  set  in  the  water  upon  the  oaken  floor.  Raised 
platforms  or  walks  are  provided  in  the  room  for  con- 
venience in  handling  the  milk.  The  walls  of  the  spring- 
house  are  about  ten  feet  high,  and  at  the  top  on  each  side 
are  windows  covered  with  wire-cloth  for  ventilation. 
The  depth  of  the  milk  in  the  pans  is  about  three  inches, 
and  the  flowing  water  which  surrounds  the  pans  maintains 
a  temperature  of  about  58  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

The  milk  is  skimmed  after  standing  24  hours,  and  the 


BUTTER    BOOK.  gg 

cream  is  put  into  deep  vessels  having  a  capacity  of  about 
12  gallons.  It  is  kept  at  a  temperature  of  58  degrees  to 
59  degrees,  until  it  acquires  a  slightly  acid  taste,  when  it 
goes  to  the  churn.  The  churn  is  a  barrel  revolving  on  a 
journal  in  each  head,  and  driven  by  horse-power.  The 
churning  occupies  about  an  hour,  and  after  the  butter- 
milk is  drawn  off  cold  water  is  added  and  a  few  turns 
given  the  churn,  and  the  water  then  drawn  off.  This  is 
repeated  until  the  water  as  it  is  drawn  off  is  nearly  free 
from  milkiness.  The  butter  is  worked  with  butter-work- 
ers, a  dampened  cloth  meanwhile  being  pressed  upon  it 
to  absorb  the  moisture  and  free  it  of  buttermilk.  The 
cloth  is  frequently  dipped  in  cold  water  and  wrung  dry 
during  the  process  of  "  wiping  the  butter."  It  is  next 
salted  at  the  rate  of  an  ounce  of  salt  to  three  pounds  of 
butter,  thoroughly  and  evenly  incorporated  by  means  of 
the  butter- worker.  It  is  then  removed  to  a  table,  where 
it  is  weighed  out  and  put  into  pound  prints.  After  this 
it  goes  into  large,  tin  trays  and  is  set  in  the  water  to 
harden,  remaining  until  next  morning,  when  it  is  wrapped 
in  damp  cloths  and  placed  upon  shelves,  one  above 
another,  in  the  tin-lined  cedar  tubs,  with  ice  in  the  com- 
partments at  the  ends,  and  then  goes  immediately  to 
market.  Matting  is  drawn  over  the  tub,  and  it  is  sur- 
rounded again  by  oilcloth  so  as  to  keep  out  the  hot  air 
and  dust,  and  the  butter  arrives  in  prime  condition,  com- 
manding from  seventy-five  cents  to  one  dollar  per  pound. 

Mr.  Isaac  A.  Calvert,  Avho  markets  his  butter  at 
these  high  prices  at  Philadelphia,  attributes  his  success  to 
three  points  : — 1.  The  food  of  his  cows  ;  2.  Temperature  ; 
3.  Neatness  and  dainty  refinement  at  every  step,  from  the 
moment  the  milk  flows  from  the  udder  till  the  dollar  in 
currency  is  paid  for  the  pound  of  butter.  He  says : — "  I 
have  found  that  I  make  my  best  butter  when  I  feed  on 
white  clover  and  early-mown  meadow  hay*  I  cut  fine, 
moisten,  and  mix  in  both  corn  meal  and  wheaten  shorts. 
Next  to  meal  I  regard  shorts,  and  prefer  to  mix  them 
together.  I  feed  often,  and  not  much  at  a  time.  I  do 
not  use  roots,  unless  it  be  carrots.  My  pastures  and 
meadows  are  quite  free  from  weeds.  I  cannot  make  this 
grade  of  butter  from  foid  pastures  or  low-grade  hay. 

"  Temperature. — -This  I  regard  as  a  matter  of  prime 
importance  in  making  butter  that  commands  a  high  price. 
4 


IJQ  WILLARD  S    PRACTICAL 

Summer  and  winter  I  do  not  permit  my  milk-room  to  vary 
much  from  58  degrees.  In  summer  I  secure  the  requisite 
coolness  by  spring-Avater  of  the  temperature  of  55  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  flowing  over  stone  or  gravel  floor  in  the  milk- 
house.  This  can  be  accomplished  without  water  in  a 
shaded  cellar  ten  feet  deep.  As  good  butter  can  be  made 
without  Avater  as  with,  but  the  milk  and  cream  must  be 
kept  at  all  times  a  little  below  60  degrees. 

"  We  skim  very  clean,  stir  the  cream-pot  whenever  a 
skimming  is  poured  in,  and  churn  but  once  a  week,  sum- 
mer and  winter.  Just  before  the  butter  gathers  we  throw 
into  the  churn  a  bucket  of  ice-cold  water.  This  hardens 
the  butter  in  small  particles  and  makes  a  finer  grain.  In 
the  hot  months  this  practice  is  unvarying. 

"  In  working  we  get  out  all  the  buttermilk,  but  do  not 
apply  the  hand.  A  better  way  is  to  absorb  the  drops 
with  a  linen  cloth  wrung  from  cold  water.  The  first 
Avorking  takes  out  all  the  milk ;  at  the  second  we  handle 
delicately,  with  fingers  as  cool  as  may  be.  The  salt  is 
less  than  an  ounce  to  a  pound,  but  not  generally  much 
less.  The  balls  each  weigh  one  pound,  and  receive  a  uni- 
form stamp.  On  packing  for  market,  each  ball  is  wrapped 
in  a  linen  cloth,  w4th  the  name  and  stall  of  the  marketman 
written  upon  it.  Our  tubs  are  made  of  cedar-plank  l|^to 
2  inches  thick  and  lined  with  tin.  On  the  inner  face  are 
little  projections,  on  which  the  shelves  rest.  The  balls 
are  not  bruised  or  pressed  at  all,  and  pass  into  the  hands 
of  the  consumer  as  firm,  as  perfect  in  outline,  and  as 
spotless  as  when  tliey  left  the  spring-house. 

"We  find  uniformity  to  be  a  prime  virtue  in  the  but- 
ter-maker. We  produce  the  same  article  whether  the 
cows  stand  knee-deep  in  white  clover-blooms  or  sun  them- 
selves on  the  lee  side  of  the  barn  in  February. 

"  There  is  a  small  ice-chamber  at  the  end  of  the  oblong 
butter  tub  (see  Fig.  13)  which  we  use  in  summer,  so  that 
in  dog-days  the  heat  within  the  tub  does  not  get  higher 
than  60  degrees  Fahrenheit.  I  need  not  add  that  we  ob- 
serve a  scrupulous,  a  religious  neatness  in  every  act  and 
in  every  utensil  of  the  dairy.  Milk  which  upon  leaving 
the  udder  passes  through  an  atmosphere  loaded  with 
stable  fumes  will  never  make  butter  for  which  we  can 
get  a  dollar  per  j^ound.  No  milk  sours  upon  the  floor  of 
the  milk-room ;   none  is  permitted  to  decompose  in  the 


BUTTER    BOOK.  ^J 

crevices  of  the  milk-pans ;  the  churn  is  scoured  and 
scalded  till  no  smell  can  be  detected  but  the  smell  of  white 
cedar. 

"  Our  customers  take  the  napkins  with  the  prints,  wash, 
iron,  and  return  them  when  they  come  to  the  stand  on 
market  days.  These  are  generally  Wednesdays  and  Sat- 
urdays. With  these  prices  we  have  no  difficulty  in  making 
a  cow  pay  for  herself  twice  a  year  ;  if  she  cost  $60,  we 
sell  1120  worth  of  butter  from  her  in  twelve  months." 

It  may  be  remarked  that  the  sour  milk  is  employed  by 
the  Philanelphia  butter-makers  as  a  feed  for  swine.  It  is 
estimated  that  such  milk  Avill  make  100  lbs.  of  pork  per 
cow. 

The  cows  in  the  district  where  the  Philadelphia  butter 
is  made  are  well  sprinkled  with  the  Jersey  or  Alderney 
blood,  and  about  a  pound  per  day  from  each  cow  is  con- 
sidered a  fair  average  for  the  best  dairies. 

PHILADELPHIA    BUTTER    PAIL. 

The  following  cuts  will  illustrate  the  butter  pail  and 
manner  of  packing  for  market : 


Pig.  13.  Fig.  13. 

Fig.  12  shows  the  general  form  of  the  tub,  the  top  or 
cover  opening  in  halves.  Fig.  13  is  a  perpendicular  sec- 
tion, showing  the  ice-chamber  and  ice  at  the  sides  and  the 
shelves  of  butter  one  above  the  other  in  the  center. 


THE    DRY    VAULT    SYSTEM. 

That  good  butter  can  be  made  on  the  "  dry  vault  sys- 
tem" there  can  be  no  doubt.  Indeed,  I  have  tested 
butter  made  on  this  system  in  numerous  instances  and 
found  it  excellent.  What  we  seek  in  a  good  method  for 
setting  the  milk  for  cream  is  an  arrangement  whereby  a 
low,  even  temperature  of  milk  may  be  maintained.  There 
must   be   crood  ventilation  in  order  that  the  animal  odor 


72 


WILLARD'S  PRACTICAL 


or  Other  odors  in  milk  prejudicial  to  its  flavor,  may  be 
free  to  pass  oflT  and  be  wafted  away  from  the  milk  room. 
These  can  be  secured  in  a  properly  constructed  vault ; 
and  although  the  pool  and  water  vat  have  in  our  opinion 
important  advantages  over  the  dry  vault,  they  must  not 
be  considered  as  wholly  indispensable  to  the  manufacture 
of  first-class  butter.  Upon  farms  therefore,  w^here  water 
cannot  conveniently  be  had  for  pools  or  for  the  supply  of 
water  vats  and  large  2^ans,  the  dry  vault  may  be  substi- 
tuted with  reasonable  prospect  that  good  butter  may 
result  from  this  plan  of  setting  the  milk.  And  in  many 
parts  of  the  West  where  running  water  is  scarce,  or  upon 
farms  that  cannot  have  the  proper  supply  of  water  near 
the  farm  buildings  where  it  is  desirable  to  locate  the  dairy 
house,  the  dry  vault  may  be  commended  and  will  be  found 
serviceable  for  butter  manufacture. 

ITS   LOCATION,    ETC. 

The  best  location  for  the  dry  vault  is  upon  a  rolling  or 
slightly  elevated  surface,  or  where  there  is  sufficient  des- 
cent to  insure  good  drainage.  Some  soils  are  gravelly 
and  afford  a  good,  natural  drainage,  and  in  such  we  have 
seen  good,  dry  vaults  erected  upon  a  level  surface,  a  dry 
■well  being  made  outside  and  a  drain  carried  from  the 
vault  to  the  well.  The  churn-room  may  be  wholly  on  the 
surface,  as  well  as  the  ice-house,  which,  when  convenient, 
should  be  in  connection  with  or  a  part  of  the  establish- 
ment. The  size  of  the  vault  when  the  churn-room  is  on 
the  surface  will  depend  of  course  upon  the  size  of  the 
dairy.  In  my  tour  through  Maryland  I  saw  a  number  of 
dry  vaults  in  successful  operation,  and  the  following  de- 
scription of  one  where  the  cliurn-room  is  partly  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground  is  given.  It  was  deemed  amply 
suflicient  for  a  small  number  of  cows,  say  from  fifteen  to 
twenty.  There  was  a  well  of  good  water  near  the  vault, 
and  pipes  were  arranged  for  conducting  w^ater  into  the 
vault  or  churn-room,  as  desired,  though  no  water  was 
employed  about  the  the  pans  in  setting  the  milk. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    THE    VAULT. 

The  milk  vault  is  11x13  feet  and  7  feet  high  to  the  top 
of  the  arch.  The  ground  is  excavated  11  feet,  and  by 
roundiniT  up  the  earth  4  feet  more  the  arch  is  8  feet  un- 
der o-round.     This  gives  a  low  temperature,  and  with  the 


BUTTER    BOOK 


V3 


use  of  an  air  tube  coininuiiicatiiig  with  the  ice  liouse,  an 
even  temperature  of  00  degrees  may  be  maintained. 
There  is  a  chimney  18  inclies  square  running  from  the 
back  end  of  the  arch,  and  thi^,  with  an  oj^eningat  tlie  bot- 
tom leading  out  tlirougii  a  drain,  gives  ventilation,  so 
that  the  atmosphere  is  kept  sweet  and  j^ure.  The  drain 
also  serves  for  the  escape  of  water.  There  is  a  pipe  also  to 
let  in  Avater  communicating  with  the  well  outside.  On 
the  sides  of  the  milk  vault  there  is  a  raised  platform  with 
trough,  all  of  solid  masonry,  for  the  purpose  of  holding 
the  pans  of  milk  which  are  set  for  cream.  The  pans  used 
are  about  a  foot  in  diameter,  and  the  space  in  the  trough 
is  Avide  enough  for  two  pans.  The  pans  hold  about  six 
quarts  each,  and  the  milk  is  set  six  inches  deep.  The 
churn-room  is  several  feet  higher  than  the  milk-room,  a 
wide  stairway  leading  from  one  room  to  the  other.  It  is 
9x12  feet,  and  has  windows  which  are  protected  Avith 
Avire  gauze  to  keep  out  flies  and  vermin.  The  Avhole  struc- 
ture is  built  of  stone  and  every  part  of  the  room  plastered 
Avith  cement,  so  as  to  be  impervious  to  Avater  and  to  ver- 
min. The  subjoined  rough  draft  (Fig.  14)Avill  illustrated 
the  ground  plan  of  the  structure. 

The  cream  is  churned  in  summer  at  a  temperature  of 
about  60  degrees  Fahr. 


MILK   VAULT  AND    CHUHN    KOOM. 


©@©@ooooi 


MILK    (CELLAR    WITH    ICE    HOUSE    ATTACHMENT. 

Another  milk  cellar  Avell  adajjted  to  farm  dairies  is  that 
arranged  on  the  plan 
of  ^Ir.  William 
Crozieii  of  Xorth- 
port,  N.  Y.  In  a 
report  by  a  connn it- 
tee  from  the  Ameri- 
can Institute,  the 
following  descrip- 
tion is  given  of  this 
structure : 
The  AA^alls  are  thirty 
six  by  eighteen  feet, 
and  it  is  divided 
into  ice  house,  milk- 
room      and     butter 


@@(g)00000 


©©©QOQO' 


c 

] 

8 


Fig.  U. 

a.a.a.  Pnns  in  trougb, 

B.  ("liimney. 

C.  Stairwiij-  leading  from  churn   room  down  to 
milk  viinlt. 

D.  Stairway  to  the  churn  room, 

kitchen,     as    in    this    plan.       Two 
tubes  or  conductors  go  doAvn  from  the   upper  part  of  the 


74 


WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 


ice  house.  They  are  made  of  boards  eight  inches  wide 
and  an  inch  tliick,  Mith  holes  bored  in  them.  The  holes 
allow  the  cold  air  to  enter  from  the  ice,  and  it  pours  in  a 
stream  from  the  mouth  of  the  tube  into  the  milk-room 
The  temperature  of  the  air  as  it  comes  out  at  the 
mouth  ot  the  tubes  is  about  35  degrees.  As  the  milk- 
room  has  thick  walls  and  the  whidows  are  hioh,  tliis 
flood  of  air  at  35  degrees  is  able  to  lower  the  mercury 
to  62  degrees,  and  even  lower,  in  July.  Sometimes  he 
closes  one  tube  to  keep  the  room  from  growing  too  cold. 
The  draft  is  the  strongest  in  the  hottest  weather  In 
spring  and  fall  there  is  little  current,  and  in  winter,  when 
the  fire  in  the  stove  is  constantly  burnin<r,  the  draft  would 
be  the  other  way.  But  then  the  mouth^s  of  the  ice  tubes 
are  closed.  By  this  arrangement  the  desired  tempera- 
ture IS  secured  the  season  through,  and  there  is  no  diflfer- 
ence  between  the  June  butter  and  his   January  butter. 

Mr.  Crozier,  in 
a  letter  to  the 
Country  Gentleman, 
in  referring  to  the 
tubes  in  connection 
with  his  milk-room, 
says:  "I  had  tubes 
made  of  four  boards 
nailed  togetlier  like 
a  box,  tilled  with 
holes  and  i)laced  in 
^''''  ^^-  the  ice    exactly  op- 

posite the  two  tiles  leading  from  the  dairy  into  the  ice 
house.  As  soon  as  the  ice  w^as  nsed  down  to  these  tubes, 
they  were  taken  out  and  laid  ash3e  until  the  ice  Avent  in 
again  the  next  time,  as  they  w^ould  be  much  in  the  way 
of  getting  in  ice  or  taking  it  out  after  we  had  reached 
this  part  of  the  ice."  He  adds  : — "This  is  a  good  thing, 
any  farmer  can  make  one  in  a  few  minutes  with  four 
boards,  an  auger  and  a  fevv'  nails  without  purchasing  a 
])atent." 

The  above  cut  Fig.  15,  will  illustrate  a  milk  cellar  with 
the  ice  house  connection  arranged  very  nearly  upon  the 
Ckozier  plan. 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


75 


PLAN  OF    MILK-CELLAR    WITH    ICE-HOUSE    CONNECTION. 

A,A,  are  tubes  made  of  boards  eight  inches  wide,  ex- 
tending from  the  ice-house  to  the  milk-room,  for  conduct- 
ing the  cold  air  from  the  ice.  These  tubes  are  perforated 
with  holes.  The  churn-room  is  higher  than  the  milk- 
room  and  is  connected  by  a  stairway  leading  from  one  to 
the  other;  R,  is  a  closet  and  W,W,  are  windows.  The 
churn-room  is  provided  with  sink  and  pump  for  water, 
and  the  milk-room  may  have  a  stove  for  regulating  tem- 
perature in  cold  weather.  The  cold  air  from  the  ice- 
house may  be  regulated  by  opening  or  closing  the  tubes 
so  as  to  maintain  a  temperature  in  the  room  of  60  to  62 
degree  Fahr.  during  the  hottest  weather.  Tlie  tubes 
open  near  the  floor  and  the  ice-house  is  higher  than  the 
milk-room.     It  may  be  wholly  above  ground. 

HEATING   THE    MILK-EOOM. 

Some  means  should  be  employed  for  heating  the  dairy 
as  needed,  either  by  stove  or  piping  for  hot  water  or  hot 
air.  There  are  seasons  when  the  weather  is  too  cold  or 
too  damp  and  the  milk  will  be  affected  unfavorably  unless 
heat  can  in  some  Avay  be  applied  to  counteract  these  in- 
fluences. A  record  should  he  kept  of  attnospheric 
changes.  Mr.  S.  E.  Leavis  of  Oxford,  N.  Y.,  says: 
"  When  the  Aveather  is  clear  and  the  wind  northwest, 
there  will  be  good  cream,  but  in  unfavorable  weather  the 
butter  globules  do  not  readily  rise.  Milk  knows  south 
wind  sooner  than  the  dairyman  knows  it,  so  sensitive  is 
it  to  atmospheric  influences.  Start  a  fire  in  damp  days,  so 
as  to  keep  the  atmosphere  dry  in  the  milk-room." 

ARTIFICIAL    HEAT    IN   THE     MILK-ROOM     COUNTERACTS    THE 
INFLUENCE    OF    THUNDER     STORMS. 

From  experiments  made  in  Sweden,  it  appears  that  a 
fire  started  in  the  dairy  when  a  thunder  storm  is  seen 
approaching,  will  counteract,  in  a  great  degree,  if 
not  wholly,  the  well  known  influence  which  such 
storms  ordinarily  have  upon  the  milk  in  hastening  its 
acidity.  Even  in  the  hottest  weather,  on  the  approach  of 
a  thunder  storm,  a  fire  is  recommended  to  be  started  in 
the  dairy.  The  reason  for  this  is,  that  the  damp,  moist, 
heavy  air  resting  on  the  milk,  proves  injurious.  Kemove 
this  air  by  any  means,   and  the  milk  will  keep.     Dry  air 


Y6  WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 

is  important  in  the  dairy.  An  excess  of  dry  air  is  not 
injurious,  hence  dairy  rooms  should  always  be.  well  ven- 
tilated. 

SCALDIXG   THE    MILK. 

The  plan  of  scalding  the  milk  soon  after  drawing  from 
the  cow,  in  order  to  tacillitate  the  rising  of  the  cream, 
has  been  known  and  practiced  from  time  immemorial,  in 
the  treatment  of  late  fall  and  winter  milk.  The  usual 
method  was  to  set  the  pans  containing  the  milk  in  a  ves- 
sel of  hot  water  on  the  kitchen  stove  and  when  it  is 
heated  to  a  temperature  of  130  to  140  degrees  Fahr.  it  is 
removed  to  the  milk  cellar  or  the  dairy-room  and  set  aside 
for  the  cream  to  rise.  Under  this  treatment  the  cream 
comes  up  speedily  and  is  more  easily  churned  than  when 
the  milk  is  set  in  the  ordinary  way.  Somewhat  recently 
the  plan  of  heating  milk,  soon  after  it  is  drawn  from 
the  cows,  to  a  temperature  of  from  130  to  140  degrees 
Fahr.,  during  fall,  spring  and  winter,  has  been  gaining 
favor  with  certain  fancy  butter  makers,  who  speak  highly 
of  the  practice,  and  say  that  the  butter  from  this  process 
meets  with  ready  sales  as  a  fancy  product.  The  heating 
expels  animal  odor,  to  some  extent,  and  in  connection 
with  aeration,  will,  without  doubt,  improve  imi)erfect 
milk,  or  that  Avhieh  is  tainted  with  odors. 

In  1870  Prof  Geokge  C.  Caldwell,  of  Cornell  Uni- 
versity, brought  prominently  before  the  dairy  public,  the 
"  germ  theory"  of  Pas  rEun,  Halliee,  and  other  scientists, 
as  to  the  cause  of  fermentation,  and  upon  this  theory  we 
can  see  how  heat  would  have  a  tendency  to  destroy 
the  spaces  or  seeds  of  certain  minute  organisms  found 
in  imperfect  milk,  thus  arresting  decomposition.  The 
heating  of  milk  of  this  description,  therefore,  has  been 
urged  as  improving  its  condition.  The  milk  after  scald- 
ing is  set  aside  in  the  dairy,  and  kept  at  a  temperature  of 
about  60  degrees  Fahr.  To  enable  farmers  and  factory- 
men  to  carry  out  this  process  of  heating,  whenever 
thought  desirable,  Messrs.  Bunnell  &  Brown  of  Guil- 
ford, N.  Y.,  have  adapted  a  heater  and  connecting  pipes 
to  their  "  Iron  Clad  Milk  Pan."  By  this  arrangement,  as 
well  as  by  the  usual  cold  water  pipes  attached  to  the 
pans  at  the  same  time,  the  dairyman  is  prepared  to  adopt 
either  the  scalding  of  the  milk  and  cooling  to  60  degrees, 
or  the  usual  practice  employed  for  setting  the  milk  when 


BUTTER    BOOK, 


77 


cut,  Fio\  iG,  skives  an  illustra- 


aiiilir^' 


large  pans  are  used.     The 
lion  of  the  Iron  Clad  Pan. 

This  is  one  of  the  best  pans  in 
use  the  water  circulating  freely 
and  evenly  under  and  around 
the  pan,  while  the  pans  can  be 
easily  taken  out  of  the  vat  and 
put  back  again.  Tlie  pipes  to 
the  pans  are  easily  detached,  and  | 
can  be  taken  off  to  be  cleaned  ifV 
necessary, while  the  milk  remains  | 
in  the  pans.  .^ 


THE      DEVOXSIIIEE       PLAX     OF 
SCALDIXG    MILK. 

In  Devonshire  the  dairy  house 
is  either  of  stone  or  brick,  and  is 
usually  in  connection  with  the 
dwelling ;  stone  floors  and  stone 
benches  for  the  milk  to  set  upon 
and  all  well  ventilated  and  kept 
scrupulously  neat  and  clean. 
The  milk  as  it  comes  from  the 
cow  is  strained  into  large,  deep 
pans  and  put  in  the  dairy,  where 
it  stands  from  eiglit  to  twelve 
liours  and  sometimes  longer, 
when  tlie  pans  are  taken  out, 
care  being  taken  not  to  agitate 
the  cream  that  has  risen,  and 
the  milk  scalded  by  placing  the 
pans  holding  it  in  an  iron  skillet 
fllled  with  water  and  set  upon 
the  range.  At  the  bottom  of 
the  skillet  there  is  a  grate  on 
which  the  pan  of  milk  rests,  so 
as  to  keep  it  from  the  bottom 
and  prevent  burning.     The  milk 

is  slowly  heated  to  near  the  boiling  point,  or  until  it  begins 
or  is  about  to  boil.  When  the  cream  begins  to  show  a 
a  distinctly-marked  circle  (or  crinkle)  about  the  outer 
edge  and  the  first  bubble  rises  on  the  surface  of  the  cream, 
it  must   be   immediately  removed  from   the  fire.     Some 


Vuiiy 


Hg  WILLARD-S    PHACTICAL 

experience  is  necessary  in  applyini^  the  heat  to  have  it 
just  right,  otherwise  the  cream  is  injured.  When  prop- 
erly scalded,  the  milk  is  removed  to  the  dairy,  where  it 
stands  from  12  to  24  hours,  according  to  the  condition  of 
the  weather,  when  the  cream  is  removed  and  is  in  a 
thick,  compact  mass,  being  an  inch  or  more  in  thickness. 
It  is  more  solid  than  cream  obtained  in  the  usual  way, 
and  has  a  peculiarly  sweet  and  pleasant  taste.  In  skim- 
ming, the  cream  is  divided  with  a  knife  into  squares  of 
convenient  size  and  removed  with  a  skimmer.  This  is 
the  iamous'  clotted  (or  clouted)  cream,  considered  in  En- 
gland as  a  great  delicacy,  and  is  largely  used  with  sugar 
upon  pastry,  puddings  or  fresh  fruits  and  especially  upon 
gooseberry  pie.  It  makes  an  extensive  article  of  com- 
merce and  is  really  a  delicious  kind  of  food.  The  milk 
thus  treated  yields  about  a  fourth  more  cream  than  is 
produced  in  the  common  way,  but  it  is  mainly  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  remaining  milk,  which  has  parted  with  more 
of  its  caseine  than  milk  treated  for  cream  in  the  ordinary 
way.  It  is  more  readily  churned  than  common  cream, 
and  I  have  often  seen  the  Devonshire  dairymaids  do 
the  churning  by  placing  the  clouted  cream  in  a  large 
earthen  vessel,  and  by  simply  stirring  the  cream  with  a 
wooden  paddle  for  a  few  minutes.  The  butter  has  some- 
thing of  the  taste  peculiar  to  the  clouted  cream  and  is 
highly  esteemed  by  those  who  are  accustomed  to  its  use. 


WILKIXSOX'S  GULF  STREAM  REFRIGERATED  DAIRY-ROOM. 


The  most  recent  invention  for  regulating  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  dairy  is  that  of  Prof  John  Wilkinsox,  the 
well-known  architect  of  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  plan  and  its  operation  will  be  of  interest.  The 
plan  for  a  perfect  control  of  temperature  and  at  the  same 
time  securing  ample  ventilation,  meets  a  want  which  has 
long  been  unsupplied.  Mr.  W.  has  been  granted  letters 
patent  on  this  invention. 


BUTTER    BOOK.  (j-g 

Tliis  system  of  dairy-room  construction  Ims  two  dis- 
tinctive characteristics,  both  operated  by  the  same  natu- 
ral law,  Gravitation.  One  consists  in  the  displacement 
and  circulation  of  air,  and  the  other  of  water  ;  the  former 
for  both  cooling  and  ventilating  the  apartment ;  the  latter 
for  cooling  only. 

Tlie  device  for  conjunctive  cooling  and  ventilating  is 
very  peculiar,  unique  and  strictly  automatic  in  its  action. 
It  consists  in  constructing  the  building  with  hollow  walls, 
or  with  close  air  chambers,  between  the  inner  and  outer 
walls ;  the  windows  are  to  have  inner  and  outer  sash, 
with  confined  air  between  them  ;  and  there  are  to  be  no 
places  for  the  ingress  or  egress  of  air,  except  those  herein 
described. 

All  the  air  supplied  to  the  apartment  is  admitted  by 
natural  movement  through  ducts,  or  pipes,  laid  in  the 
ground  at  a  depth  to  be  secure  from  the  eflects  of  both 
sun  and  frost.  One  of  said  ducts  requires  to  have  a  fall 
or  slope  toward  the  building,  and  the  other  from  it ;  or- 
dinarily, each  duct  requires  to  be  about  100  feet  in 
length  and  to  be  laid  five  feet  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 

THE    ACTION    OF    THE    DUCTS. 

All  the  terminals  of  the  ducts  being  open,  air  will  cir- 
culate through  both  ducts  and  through  the  building  at  all 
times. 

The  direction  of  the  air  in  the  ducts  depends  entirely 
on  the  temperature  of  the  external  atmosphere.  When 
said  air  is  warmer  than  the  earth,  the  cooler  and  more 
dense  air  in  the  ducts  will,  on  account  of  its  density,  flow 
down  into  the  building,  thence  through  it  and  the  lower 
duct,  and  will  be  discharged  on  the  surface  of  the  ground 
below  the  building.  Thus  it  will  be  apparent  that  air  is 
taken  into  the  building  at  the  temperature  of  the  earth, 
or  about  62  degrees.  As  the  ducts  are  arranged  in  the 
diagram,  if  the  temperature  of  the  air  in  the  building  is 
higher  than  that  of  the  air  flowing  through  it,  it  will 
cool  and  change  only  the  stratum  near  the  floor. 

If  it  is  desirable  to  cool  and  change  the  air  of  the 
apartment  to  any  particular  point  between  the  floor  and 
the  ceiling,  it  is  only  necessary  to  insert  into  the  egress 
duct  a  joint  of  portable  pipe  of  a  length  that  will  exhaust 


30  WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 

the  air  at  the  requisite  liight,  when  all  the  air  below  that 
point  will  be  eooled  and  the  circulation  and  Aentilatioii 
will  continue  tlie  same  as  before  the  perpendicular  length 
of  j3ipe  was  added. 

PwEVKRSING   THE     CIllCULATIOX. 

Whenever  the  respective  temperatures  of  the  external 
atmosphere  and  of  that  in  the  ducts  is  reversed,  or  when 
the  out-of-door  temperature  is  lower  than  that  of  the 
earth,  heat  will  be  absorbed  by  the  air  in  the  ducts  from 
the  earth  in  which  they  lie,  and  being  rarified  and  ren- 
dered more  buoyant,  it  will  rise  through  the  lower  duct 
to  tlie  building,  thence  through  it  and  the  npper  duct, 
and  will  escape  at  the  highest  point. 

By  this  means  circulation  and  ventilation  is  automatic- 
ally maintained  at  all  seasons,  and  thorough  and  constant 
change  of  the  air  of  the  apartment  is  secured;  and,  more- 
over, a  uniform  temperature  is  obtained  summer  and 
winter,  without  artificial  heat,  or  the  use  of  ice  or  cold 
Avater. 

In  warm  Aveather  the  duct,  being  cooler  than  the  ex- 
ternal atmosphere,  a  portion  of  the  moisture  in  the  air 
will  condense  on  the  interior  surface  of  the  duct,  and 
when  it  increases  to  that  degree  that  it  flows  in  the  ])ipe, 
it  is  received  into  drip  wells,  with  earth  bottoms,  and  is 
absorbed.  The  air  coming  in  contact  with  the  moist  sur- 
face of  the  duct,  is  effectually  freed  from  dust  and  other- 
wise improved  in  its  hygienic  condition,  which  character- 
istic of  the  system  can  scarcely  be  over-estimated. 

SALUBRITY    SECURED. 

A  temperature  most  desirable  in  a  dairy-room  is  objec- 
tionably law  for  the  health  and  comfort  of  the  manipula- 
tor, wiio  is  at  times  exposed  to  a  sudden  transition  from 
a  very  high  to  a  very  low"  temperature,  and  vice  versa. 
This  serious  objection  is  entirely  removed  in  the  proper 
nse  of  the  subterranean  system  of  ventilation.  The  cir- 
culation of  cooled  air  may  be  confined  to  a  thin  stratum 
near  the  floor,  while  all  portions  of  the  air  of  the  apart- 
ment nbove  that  ]ioint  may  be  kept  at  any  temperature 
most  desirable.  Xo  characteristic  of  this  system  is  more 
liighly  estimated  by  persons  familiar  with  hygienic  laws 
than  that  last  described. 


BUTTER    BOOK.  81 

A    SUPER-COOLING    DUCT. 

Another  characteristic  of  the  system  of  subterranean 
ventilation,  more  liighly  prized  by  many  than  any  other, 
is  the  powerful  cooling  adjunct,  consisting  simply  of  a 
branch  of  the  summer-supply  duct,  which  is  laid  in  a  cold 
air  chamber,  under  an  ice-house  located  contiguously  to 
tlie  dairy-room,  or  apartment  to  be  cooled. 

By  closing  a  valve  on  the  end  of  the  direct,  warm- 
weather  supply  duct,  and  opening  that  on  the  end  of  the 
super-cooling  duct  (both  accessible  in  the  apartment),  all 
the  air  admitted  must  pass  through  the  super-cooled 
branch  duct,  which  may  be  made  to  supply  air  at  the  tem- 
perature of  40  degrees  or  lower ;  and  by  adjusting  both 
valves  the  temperature  of  the  air  admitted  may  be  modi- 
fied to  any  degree  desired,  between  forty  and  sixty. 

The  inventor,  who  is  proverbial  as  a  utilitarian,  claims 
that  to  secure  super-cooling  as  above  described,  neces- 
sarily involves  the  us3  of  more  or  less  ice,  and  a  propor- 
tionate expense,  and  that  there  is  in  ice-houses,  as  ordi- 
narily arranged,  a  waste  of  cooling  power  that  he  has 
saved  in  his  "  Gulf  Stream  "  water  bath,  and  by  util- 
izing Slid  wa-ite  he  avoids  mmecessary  draught  on  the 
ice  and  at  the  same  tiuie  secures  a  more  rapid  system  of 
cooling,  when  it  is  desired.  Both  systems  are  covered 
by  the  patent,  hence  he  sunplies  both,  and  they  may  be 
used  separately  or  conjunctively,  as  may  be  preferred. 

The  accom]>anying  engravings  are  copied  from  draw- 
ings furnished  by  the  inventor,  and  the  reference  descrip- 
tions are  prepared  by  him  : 

Fig.  1  represents  a  ground-floor  plan  of  the  "  Gulf 
Stream  Refrigerated  Dairy  Room,"  with  an  Ice  House 
contiguous. 

REFERENCES. 

A,  stairs  leading  to  scullery,  D;  B,  the  dairy  room; 
C,  the  floor  of  the  ice-house,  on  which  the  ice  rests  ;  a, 
that  portion  of  the  gulf  stream,  water  bath  of  which  is 
in  the  floor  of  the  dairy;  J,  the  portion  of  the  bath  which 
is  in  a  cold  air  chamber,  beneath  the  ice,  and  the  bounds 
of  it  are  denoted  by  the  figures  1,  2,  3  and  4  ;  the  dimen- 
sion figures  denote  the  superficies  cf  the  bath.  A  row 
of  cans  in  the  batli  is  shown  by  the  circles,  and  one  can 


82 


WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 


FIG   l.-GULF    STREAM    DAIRY    ROOM-GROUND    FLOOR    PLAN. 


BUTTER  BOOK. 


82 


84  WILLAEDS    PRACTICAL 

marked  5,  is  set  to  receive  strained  miik  from  the  strain- 
ing can,  6.  By  using  cans  eight  inclies  in  diameter  and 
twenty  inches  in  depth,  the  capacity  of  the  bath  is  500 
gallons  ;  c,  the  super-cooled  brancli  of  the  summer  supply 
duct,  with  a  valve  at  d  ;  e,  the  main  summer  supply  duct, 
with  its  drip  well  /",  its  perpendicular  part  </,  and  its 
valve  at  X ;  A,  air  spaces  in  walls ;  ^,  cold  air  chamber ; 
J,  overflow  of  water  bath ;  K,  summer  egress  duct,  open- 
ing perpendicularly  at  the  floor ;  ^,  steam  generator ;  W2, 
radiator  for  lieating  dairy ;  n,  chimney ;  o,  sink ;  p^ 
churn;  q^  adjustable  metal  ventilating  pipe,  to  be  used 
as  an  exhaust,  or  egress  pipe,  if  the  i)eculiarities  of  the 
site  require  it ;  r,  work  table  ;  S,  rain  water  cistern.  The 
walls  represent  brick  and  stones,  the  narrowest  4^  inch ; 
the  medium,  9  inch  bricks  and  the  widest  an  eighteen 
inch  stone  wall.  The  building  may,  however,  be  built  of 
any  material  most  economical.  As  the  cold  Avater  bath 
will  not  be  i-equired  in  winter,  it  may  be  floored  over 
with  movable  floor,  and  the  same  space  be  used  for  setting 
the  milk  in  air.  It  will  be  seen  that  all  the  manipulation  of 
the  milk  and  butter,  except  setting  for  raising  cream,  is 
performed  in  the  scullery.  The  joists  shown  in  the  ice- 
house floor  are  to  be  3x12,  and  the  plank  of  said  floor  are 
to  be  2  inches  in  thickness.  The  floor  of  the  cold  air 
chamber  is  to  be  of  cement,  plastered  on  the  eartli ;  tlie 
object  being  to  make  it  impervious  to  water,  and  it 
having  a  suitable  drip,  discharges  the  water  from  the 
melted  ice  into  the  water  bath,  and  is  its  only  source  of 
supply. 

Fig.  2  represents  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  entrance 
and  stairway,  A  ;  the  dairy-room,  B  ;  and  the  ice-house, 
C ;  a,  that  portion  of  the  water  bath  in  the  floor  of  the 
dairy,  and  h  an  extension  of  tlie  same  into  the  cold  cham- 
ber under  the  ice ;  c  the  super-cooling  branch  of  summer 
supply  duct,  with  its  valve  d ;  e,  the  floor  of  the  dairy ; 
A,  the  air  chambers  in  walls ;  z,  the  cold  air  chamber  un- 
der ice  ;  K,  the  duct  having  a  fall  or  slope  from  the  dairy- 
room,  which  duct  is  the  egress  duct  in  summer  ;  /,  the 
stone  steps ;  m,  a  radiator  for  heating  the  dairy ;  w,  door 
between  the  dairy  and  scullery  ;  o,  doorway  to  scullery, 
and  ^  the  outer  door  ;  q^  an  adjustable  ventilating  pipe, 
connecting  with  the  smoke  flue.  This  pipe,  in  the 
position  shown,   exhausts   the  air  from  the  dairy  from  a 


BUTTER    BOOK.  g^ 

point  near  the  floor,  but  in  case  it  is  desirable  to  exliaiist 
it  from  a  higlier  point  the  pipe  maybe  turned  to  positions 
shown  by  r;  s,  shows  the  position  of  the  main  summer 
supply  duct;  t^  ventilators  on  roof  of  dairy,  and  on  tliat 
of  ice-house ;  w,  door  for  tilling  ice-house ;  v,  a  floating 
hinged  valve,  which  rises  and  flails  with  the  water  in  the 
bath,  and  prevents  air  from  flowing  from  cold  chamber 
mto  dairy-room.  W,  floor  of  ice-house  ;  X,  valve  on  dis- 
charge end  of  main  supply  duct  branch,  leading  from 
the  drip  well  y.  1  is  a  rocking  valve  in  an  erect  position, 
so  arranged  that  it  forms  a  partition  across  the  water 
bath,  and  prevents  the  circulation  of  the  water,  as  it 
w'ould  circulate  without  said  valve,  on  the  gulf  stream 
principle.  When  it  is  desirable  to  have  water  circulate 
for  cooling  the  bath  in  the  dairy,  the  valve  is  set  oblique- 
ly, as  shown  at  2,  and  the  colder  water  from  under  the 
cold  chamber  will  flow  alono'  the  bottom  of  the  bath,  in 
the  direction  shown  by  the  lower  arrow,  and  the  Avarmer 
water  from  within  the  dairy  will  flow  into  the  cold  chamber, 
as  shown  by  the  upper  arrow.  The  circulation  is  checked 
and  controlled  by  adjusting  the  valve,  and  the  tempei-a- 
ture  of  the  water  in  the  dairy  is  automatically  maintained 
at  any  desired  degree.  The  difference  in  the  density  of 
the  water  under  the  cold  chamber,  and  of  that  in  the 
bath  in  the  dairy,  causes  a  tendency  to  circulate  until  an 
equilibrium  is  established,  but  the  equilibrium  tempera- 
ture would  be  too  low  for  setting  milk,  hence  the  neces- 
sity for  the  valve  for  controlling  the  circulation,  which 
may  be  done  with  the  greatest  nicety.  It  Avill  be  seen 
that  there  is  a  sub-roof,  or  raised  ceiling  over  the  ice. 
On  this,  the  non-conducting  material  is  to  be  placed,  in- 
stead of  putting  it  directly  on  the  ice.  The  hollow  walls 
serve  as  suflicient  protection  to  the  sides  of  the  ice-house. 
With  this  arrangement,  the  labor  and  cost  of  material 
used  in  protecting  the  ice  from  heat,  has  to  be  borne  but 
once,  instead  of  annually,  no  small  item  of  economy. 


g(j  WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 


POINTS  COXCERXIXG  BUTTER  MAKING. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  New  York  State  Dairymen's  As- 
sociation at  Binghamton,  1874,  Mr.  Samuel  E.  Lewis,  of 
Chenango  Co.,  X.  Y.,  gave  the  following  points,  Avhich 
we  think  are  worthy  of  study  and  observation  by  the  But- 
ter Dairyman : 

COXCERXIXG    ACIDITY. 

In  the  manufacturing  of  butter  the  first  point  is  good 
cows  and  then  good  feed,  and  the  next  the  setting  of  the 
milk.  Milk  is  almost  as  sensitive  to  atmospheric  changes 
as  mercury  itself.  It  is  a  question  among  many  as  to 
what  depth  milk  should  be  set  to  get  the  most  cream. 
It  does  not  make  so  much  difference  as  to  the  depth,  as  it 
does  the  protection  of  the  milk  from  acid  or  souring.  As 
soon  as  the  acid  strikes  the  milk  the  cream  ceases  to  rise. 
Many  have  seen  milk  sour  and  whey  off  in  twelve  hours' 
time,  with  little  or  no  cream  on  it.  The  reason  of  this  is 
that  the  acid  commences  to  develop  itself  in  the  milk  be- 
fore the  animal  lieat  leaves  it,  licnce  there  is  no  cream. 

With  a  clear,  dry  atmosphere  the  cream  will  rise  clean 
in  the  milk;  but  in  that  condition  of  the  atmosphere  that 
readily  sours  the  milk,  the  cream  Avill  not  rise  clean,  but 
seems  to  hang  in  the  milk,  and  this  even  when  the  milk  is 
protected  from  the  acid  by  being  set  in  water. 

The  benefits  of  setting  milk  in  cold  water  are,  that  the 
water  protects  the  milk  from  the  acid  until  the  cream  has 
time  to  rise.  For  cream  to  rise  readily  on  milk  set  in 
cold  water,  the  atmosphere  in  the  room  should  be  warmer 
than  the  water.  There  will  as  much  cream  rise  on  milk 
set  in  cold  svater  in  one  hour  as  there  will  on  milk  not  set 
in  water  in  twenty-four  hours. 

In  skimming  the  cream  ofi"  from  the  milk  there  should 
always  be  milk  enough  skimmed  in  with  the  cream  to 
give  the  butter,  when  churned,  a  bright,  clean  look. 
Butter  churned  from  clear  cream  itself  will  have  an  oily  or 
shiny  look  when  it  comes  in  the  churn.  Cream  skimmed 
froni  different  milkings,  if  churned  at   the  same  time,  in 


BUTTER    BOOK.  Q^J 

one    churn,  should  be  mixed  eight  to    ten  hours  before 
churning,  then  the  cream  will  all  come  alike. 

AVHITE    SPECKS. 

White  specks  in  cream  are  caused  by  too  much  acid  in 
the  cream.  It  is  in  one  sense  cheese  curd ;  for  butter 
packed  with  white  specks  in  it  will,  after  a  time,  have  a 
cheese  smell. 

White  specks  occur  in  butter  in  the  spring — one  kind 
is  found  with  cream  still  swxet — ^specks  like  hard  curd  ; 
strain  them  out,  else  your  butter  will  have  a  cheesy  taste ; 
the  second  kind  is  caused  by  acidity,  which  progresses  by 
keeping ;  and  in  cream  acts  like  rennets,  converting  cream 
into  curd  ;  churn  before  acid  develops  and  you  avoid 
white  specks  ;  the  third  cause  is  an  advanced  state  of  the 
secopd;  cream  should  never  stand  in  a  room  where  the 
milk  is  set,  but  should  be  put  into  a  cool  place  if  you 
would  avoid  specks. 

COXCERXIXG    THE    KEEPING    QUALITIES    OF    BUTTER. 

In  my  opinion  the  keeping  qualities  of  butter  depend 
principally  upon  two  things.  First,  the  buttermilk  must 
be  all  got  out;  and,  second,  the  grain  of  the  butter  should  be 
kept  as  perfect  as  possible.  Butter  should  not  be  allowed 
to  be  churned  after  it  has  fairly  come,  and  should  not  be 
gathered  compact  in  the  churn  to  take  out,  but  the  but- 
termilk should  be  drained  from  the  butter  in  the  cluirn, 
through  a  hair  sieve,  letting  the  butter  remain  in  the 
churn.  Then  take  the  water  and  turn  it  upon  the  butter 
Avith  sufficient  force  to  pass  through  the  butter,  and  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  rinse  the  buttermilk  all  out  of  the 
butter.  With  this  process  of  washing  the  butter  the 
grain  is  not  injured  or  mashed,  and  is  thus  far  kept  per- 
fect. And  in  working  in  the  salt,  the  ladle,  or  roll,  or 
worker,  whatever  it  is,  should  never.be  allowed  to  slip  on 
the  butter ;  if  it  does  it  will  destroy  the  grain  ;  but  it 
shmild  go  upon  the  butter  in  a  pressing  or  rollino:  motion. 

Butter  should  never  be  hurried  in  the  packino-,  but 
should  have  time  to  cure,  and  time  for  the  salt  to  dis- 
solve ;  for  the  chemical  action  of  the  salt  will,  after  a 
time,  separate  the  buttermilk  from  the  butter. 


88 


WILLARD'S    PRACTICAL. 


DEEP  OR  SHALLO^\   SETTING  OF  MILK-ASSOCIATED 
DAIRYING,  ETC. 


The  question  of  "  deep  or  shallow  settmg,"  in  order  to 
get  the  best  results  from  the  milk,  has  been  the  subject 
of  warm  discussion  between  the  advocates  of  the  pool 
and  large  pan  system,  and  is  regarded  by  many  as  a 
'•'•  mooted  question^''  Before  the  pail  and  pool  plan  of 
setting  milk  came  into  practice,  writers  on  the  dairy 
laid  it  down  as  a  principle  that  the  cream  globules  could 
not  rise  through  a  greater  depth  of  milk  than  five  or  six 
inches,  and  this  for  many  jears  was  universally  accepted 
as  true.  The  "pool  and  pail  system,"  however,  showed 
this  to  be  a  fallacy,  and  many  who  had  taken  the  old 
statements  of  writers,  supposing  them  to  be  authorities, 
were  astounded  when  they  saw  the  practical  operation  of 
deep  setting  and  the  superior  quality  of  butter  it  pro- 
duced. I  was  tiie  first  to  bring  the  "  [)ail  and  pool  sys- 
tem" into  public  notice,  in  editorials  in  the  Utica  Herald, 
in  addresses  before  the  dairy  associations  and  in  pamph- 
lets published  by  the  New  York  State  Agricultural  So- 
ciety, and  I  well  remember  tlie  incredulity  Avith  which 
old  butter  makers  looked  upon  tliis  innovation.  But  the 
pails  and  pools  had  so  many  advantages  over  the  com- 
mon small  pans,  then  in  universal  use,  that  the  new  prac- 
tice, as  I  had  anticipated,  was  destined  to  gain  favor  and 
become  widely  extended.  Subsequently,  however,  the 
large  pan  system  was  introduced  and  the  controversy 
soon  after  sprung  up  as  to  which  plan  of  setting,  deep  or 
shallow,  would  produce  the  most  butter.  And  although 
many  of  the  advocates  of  the  pool  and  pail  will  not  ad- 
mit that  shallow  setting  will  give  a  larger  quantity  of 
butter,  the  weight  of  testimony  seems  to  be  in  favor  of 
the  latter.  It  is  pretty  generally  admitted,  however,  that 
the  deep  setting  gives  a  finer  quality  of  butter,  and  as  it 
has  other  advantages  in  connection  Avith  "  skim  cheese  " 
manufacture,  it   will  always  be  a  favorite  mode  of  setting 


BUTTER     BOOK.  89 

where  there  is  plenty  of  cool  spring  \vater  and  the  skim 
milk  is  made  into  cheese. 

ASSOCIATED      BUTTER      PAIRYIXG      AND      THE      "  POOL    AND 


The  American  system  of  associated  dairies  was  inaug- 
urated during  the  early  part  of  1851.  Though  more  than 
twenty  years  have  elapsed  since  the  plan  Avas  conceived, 
the  leading  features  of  the  system  remain  unchanged. 
Great  improvements,  it  is  true,  have  been  made  in  build- 
ings and  dairy  apparatus  and  in  the  methods  of  mani- 
pulating milk  for  cheese  and  butter  manufacture ;  still,  in 
organizing  factories,  in  the  maiuier  of  delivering  milk,  in 
the  relation  between  manufacturer  and  patron,  in  the  care 
and  disposal  of  the  product — indeed,  in  all  tlie  general 
outlines  of  the  system — it  is  the  same  to-day  as  when 
Jesse  Williams  in  1850,  mapped  it  out  for  the  first  cheese- 
factory  which  he  erected  early  the  following  year. 

In  the  original  plan  of  Mr.  Williams  it  was  not  con- 
templated to  apply  the  system  to  butter  manufacture. 
BVit  the  success  of  the  cheese  factories  suggested  to  the 
butter  dairymen  of  Orange  county,  New  York,  such  a 
modification  of  the  system  as  would  adapt  it  to  their 
branch  of  business. . 

Tlie  whole  farming  population  of  this  connty  had  for 
eighty  years,  or  more,  devoted  its  chief  attention  to  but- 
ter-making and  the  furnishing  of  fresh  milk  for  the  New 
York  market.  From  so  long  attention  to  a  specialty, 
the  butter  of  Orange  county,  as  was  to  be  expected,  was 
of  fine  quality,  acquired  a  high  reputation,  and  com- 
manded better  prices  than  any  otlier  brand  made  in  the 
State.  By  adopting,  however,  the  associated  system, 
together  with  a  new  plan  for  setting  the  milk  and  ob- 
taining the  cream,  the  product  rose  to  the  highest  point 
of  excellence,  and  in  consequence  extraordinary  prices 
were  paid  for  it. 

ORGANIZING    FACTORIES. 

The  plan  of  organizing  factories  is  somewhat  similar 
to  that  employed  in  the  cheese  districts.  The  first 
effort  of  organization  in  a  neighborhood,  generally  falls 
upon  one  or  two  persons,  who  may  be  desirous  of  hav- 
ing a  factory  where  they  can  deliver  the  milk  from 
their  cows,  and  liave    it    manufactured.      They    go   and 


90  WILLAEDS    PRACTICAL 

talk  with  theii-  neighbors,  and  finally  call  a  meeting  at 
some  central  point  in  the  neighborhood,  where  all  are  in- 
vited to  come  and  discuss  the  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages of  the   system. 

The  cost  of  erecting  a  good  flietory,  and  supplying  it 
with  machinery  and  dairy  appliances,  is  from  two  to  four 
thousand  dollars,  and  the  farmers  of  the  neighborhood 
are  expected  to  join  together,  and  pay  for  the  erection 
of  the  buildings,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  their 
farms,  or  number  of  cows  from  Avhich  milk  is  to  be 
delivered.  The  shares  are  put  at  from  ten  dollars  to 
fifty  dollars  each,  so  as  to  be  within  the  reach  of  farmers 
who  have  but  few  cows. 

After  the  stock  shall  have  been  subscribed,  a  meeting 
is  called,  officers  are  chosen,  and  powers  are  delegated 
for  the  erection  of  the  building,  and  for  putting  it  in 
operation. 

The  structure  being  completed  and  furnished,  a 
superintendent  is  chosen,  and  help  hired  for  running 
the  factory  ;  and  the  expenses  are  shared  by  the  stock- 
holders in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  milk  delivered. 
The  cost  of  repairs,  additions,  <fcc.,  from  year  to  year, 
is  added  to  the  expense  account. 

The  price  charged  for  making  the  butter  usually  ranges 
from  four  cents  to  five  cents  per  pound,  and  when  skim 
cheese  is  made  from  the  skimmed  milk,  two  cents  per 
pound  is  charged  for  the  making  and  care  of  the  cheese, 
including  packages   and  furnishing  supplies. 

THE    NEW"   DEPART tTRE    IX    FACTORY    MAXAGEIMEXT. 

Some  changes  are  being  gradually  made  in  the  factory 
system  which  promise  to  be  an  additional  improvement 
in  conducting  the  business  of  dairying.  The  old  plan, 
and  that  on  which  most  of  the  ketones  are  now  man- 
aged, is  to  make  the  factory  a  "joint  stock  afiiiir,"  among 
the  farmers  of  a  neighborhood,  or  perhaps  one  person 
will  build  a  factory  on  his  own  account  and  manufacture 
the  butter  and  skim  cheese  at  a  certain  rate  per  pound, 
the  patrons  in  both  instances  holdimr  the  butter  and 
cheese  in  their  own  right  and  selling  it  from  time  to  time 
in  bulk  together.  Sometimes  a  committee  and  some- 
times only  one  person  is  entrusted  with  the  sales.  The 
salesman  usually  gets  a  small  compensation  for  his  services. 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


91 


It  will  be  seen  that  this  system  is  somewhat  complicated, 
since  it  necessitates  a  division  of  the  business  into  sev- 
eral separate  branches  and  each  branch  requires  a  compe- 
tent agent  or  manager,  to  secure  which  often  takes  more 
money  than  can  well  be  aiforded.  Now,  if  the  establish- 
ments were  organized  on  a  plan  by  which  the  farmer 
treats  directly  Avith  the  factory — that  is  to  say,  simply 
delivers  his  milk  and  gets  his  pay  for  it  on  some  basis  of 
highest  values — there  would  evidently  be  an  improve- 
ment in  the  system,  because  it  would  relieve  the  farmer 
from  the  machinery  entailed  on  the  several  branches  al- 
luded to  and  there  would  be  less  liability  to  loss.  This 
is  the  new  plan  or  change  to  \\  hich  I  have  referred. 

Responsible  parties  are  now  taking  hold  of  the  facto- 
ries and  managing  them  as  a  business.  The  factories  are 
owned  and  managed  on  the  same  principle  as  the  manu- 
factories of  cotton,  wool,  iron,  &c.  The  raw  material 
or  milk  is  purchased  at  the  factory  and  the  farmer  lias  no 
further  interest  in  it.  The  product  manufoctured  is 
under  the  complete  control  of  the  proprietor  of  the  fac- 
tory. He  disposes  of  it  as  he  sees  fit,  either  in  the  home 
or  foreign  market ;  and  haA'ing  a  large  quantity  and 
being  solely  interested  in  the  sales,  he  makes  it  his  busi- 
ness to  keep  posted. in  regard  to  the  markets,  and  conse- 
quently better  prices  are  on  the  wiiole  obtained.  By 
having  a  sufficient  number  of  factories  to  manage,  the 
party  or  parties  owning  the  property  have  a  business  that 
keeps,  them  regularly  employed,  and  of  course  the  profits 
are  sufficient  to  make  it  an  inducement  to  manage  all  the 
details  in  the  best  manner.  Take,  for  instance,  a  company 
with  twenty  fiictories.  The  supplies  can  be  bought  by 
one  person  and  the  product  can  be  sold  by  one  person 
with  vastly  more  economy  than  on  the  old  system,  where 
from  twenty  to  forty  persons  are  employed  to  do  the 
work,  Again,  the  manufacturers  and  help  employed  at 
the  different  factories  are  all  under  the  control  of  one 
head  or  one  firm  Avhich  is  constantly  overlooking  their 
work,  hence  any  error,  waste  or  extravagance  is  quickly 
correcte.l  by  an  executive  that  has  the  power  of  compel- 
ino-  obedience  at  once  Avithout  "  dilly-dallying  "  along 
with  committees,  and  waiting  for  the  slow  action  of 
patrons,  as  on  the  old  system,  thus  necessitating  losses 
from  inferior  or  damasked  c^oods,  as  is  often  the  case.     In 


92 


WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 


iiiie,  it  is  attempted  to  a})))!}'  tlie  snme  principle  of 
economy  in  massing  factories  together  as  has  been 
brought  about  in  massing  the  farm  dairies  of  a  neiglibor- 
hood  together  in  one  lactory.  Tiie  price  paid  for  milk  is 
based  upon  the  vahie  of  milk  were  it  made  into  clieese, 
that  is  to  say,  the  factories  pay  two  cents  less  than  the 
highest  quotations  for  "  fancy  cheese  in  New  York  City 
for  every  10  pounds  of  milk.  In  other  words,  it  is 
assumed  that  10  pounds  of  milk,  on  an  average  through 
the  season,  will  make  one  pound  of  cheese.  Hence  if  the 
best  "fancy"  cheese  in  New  York  city,  is  quoted  at  16 
cents  per  pound  tlie  formers  are  paid  14  cents  for  every 
ten  pounds  of  milk  delivered  at  the  factory.  The  settle- 
ment is  made  the  first  of  every  month,  and  the  average  of 
the  quotations  during  the  month  is  taken.  Thus,  for 
instance,  the  May  milk  would  be  regulated  by  the  June 
quotations,  since  if  the  May  milk  was  made  up  on  the  old 
})lan  it  would  not  get  into  market  until  June,  and  so  on 
during  the  several  months  of  the  year. 

By  purchasing  the  milk  direct  from  the  farmer  the  busi- 
ness, it  would  seem,  is  less  complicated,  and  so  far  as  tried 
has  proved  satisfactory  to  the  dairymen  as  well  as  to  the 
proprietors  of  the  factories. 


CREAMERY  PRACTICE-PAIL  AND  POOL  SYSTEM. 


As  the  "  pail  and  pool"  system  originated  in  Orange 
county,  and  as  this  plan  of  butter  making  has  not 
changed  materially,  though  now  widely  distributed  in 
other  localities,  it  will  be  proper  to  give  a  brief  account 
of  the  early  factories. 

The  first  American  butter  factory  was  erected  by  Mi'. 
Alansox  Slaughter,  near  Goshen,  Orange  county, 
New  York.  The  main  building  is  a  cheap  two-storied 
structure,  arranged  on  a  plan  similar  to  that  of  the  cheese 
factories.  On  the  ground  floor  are  the  milk  vats,  presses, 
and  other  appliances  for  making  cheese,  while  the  second 
floor  is  entirely  devoted  to  the  dry-room,  or  department 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


93 


for  storing  the  cheese  diirhig  the  process  of  curing,  &c. 
See  P'ig  17. 

The    spring-house   is    built  out  upon  the    end  of  this 
structure,  forming  a  wing,  and  is  one   story  high.     It  is 


o. 


/?A  CK  FOR  DRYWG  PAIL  S 


PR£rSS£S 


SPR/A/G 


1 


SPRf/VG 


1 

Q 

iM 

05 

<o 

Qr 

Ci 

"o'o  § 

1 

\    ^£ 

OO  ^ 

'^    6 

^ 

1       ^^ 

uL 

^\J 

Fig.  17. 
divided  into  two  rooms,  one  12  feet  by  16  feet,  and  the 
other  14  feet  by  24  feet.  The  packing  and  churning 
room  is  in  a  separate  building,  12  feet  by  24  feet,  and 
stands  opposite  the  spring-room,  with  a  narrow  alley  be- 
tween. This  alley  is  used  for  a  horse-walk  where  the 
5 


94 


WILLARD  S   PRACTICAL 


teams  deliver  milk  and  cart  away  the  products  of  the 
dairy.  Connected  with  the  packing  and  churning  de- 
partment there  is  a  horse-gear  for  churning,  and  an  ice- 
house and  store-room. 

THE    SPRINGS,    AXD    THE    MANNER    OF    TREATING    MILK. 

In  the  earlier  factories  erected,  the  springs  are 
situated  within  the  enclosure  of  the  spring-house,  and 
vats  or  tanks  are  constructed  about  the  springs  for  hold- 
ing the  water.  These  pools  are  each  twelve  feet  long 
and  six  feet  wide.  The  earth  is  excavated,  and  the  sides 
of  the  pool  are  laid  up  in  solid  masonry,  or  with  stout 
oak  i^lank,  so  that  the  water  in  the  pools  shall  rise  no 
higher  than  the  level  of  the  floor  of  the  sj^ring  house. 
Near  the  bottom  of  the  pools  racks  are  arranged  for 
holding  the  cans  or  pails  of  milk;  the  water  flows  up 
through  these  racks  and  above  them  to  the  hight  of 
seventeen  inches. 

When  a  spring  cannot  be  had  in  the  spring-house,  the 
pools  are  sunk  below  the  level  of  the  floor  and  arranged 
in  the  same  way  as  above  described,  except  that  the  bot- 
toms are  cemented  tight,  covered  with  flagging  or  oak- 
plank,  and  the  water  conducted  from  the  spring 
through  pipes.  The  pails  for  holding  the  milk  are  of 
tin,  from  twenty  to  twenty-two  inches  in  length  and 
eight  inches  in  diameter.  In  furnishing  a  factory,  two 
pails  are  required  for  each  cow's  milk  delivered. 

As  fast  as  the  milk  is  received  the  pails  are  filled  within 
four  or  five  inches  of  the  top,  and  immediately  placed 
in  tlie  water.  Care  is  taken  that  the  surface  of  the  milk 
in  the  pails  is  not  above  that  of  the  water  in  the  pools. 
Tlie  pails  are  set  close  together,  and  each  pool  has  capacity 
for  holding  2,040  quarts  of  milk.  There  should  be  a 
constant  flow  of  water  in  and  out  of  the  pools,  and  the 
flow  sliould  be  sufiicient  to  divest  the  milk  of  its  animal 
lieat  after  reaching  the  factory  in  less  than  an  hour. 

Some  experiments  have  been  made  with  a  view  of  de- 
termining at  what  temperature  the  water  in  the  pools 
enables  operations  to  be  conducted  with  the  most  success ; 
and  the  best  results  in  cream  (quantity  and  quality  con- 
sidered) are  obtained  when  the  natural  temperature  of  the 
Avater  flowing  into  the  pools  is  about  56  degrees  Fahr. 
The  pools  should  not  be  kept  at  so  low  a  temperature  as 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


95 


48  degrees,  nor  much,  if  any,  above  57  degrees.  The 
range  of  temperature  desired  by  some  is  from  56  to  60 
degrees.  It  is  chaimed  that  more  cream,  and  that  of  bet- 
ter quality  for  butter  making,  may  be  obtained  by  setting 
the  milk  on  the  above  plan  than  it  Avill  yield  when  set 
shallower  in  pans  and  exposed  to  uneven  temperatures. 

One  feature  in  the  process,  deemed  of  great  importance, 
is  to  expose  as  little  of  the  surface  of  the  milk  to  the  air 
as  possible,  in  order  that  the  top  of  the  cream  may  not 
get  dry,  as  this  has  a  tendency  to  fleck  the  butter  and  in- 
jure the  flavor.  The  milk  of  one  day  is  left  in  the  pools 
until  next  morning,  which  gives  twenty-four  hours  for 
the  morning's  mess  and  twelve  hours  for  the  evening's 
mess  to  cream:  The  pails  are  then  taken  out  of  the  pools 
and  the  cream  dipped  off".  In  remov- 
ing the  cream  a  little  tunnel  shaped 
cup,  with  a  long,  upright  handle  is 
used  (see  Fig.  18),  and  the  thin 
cream  is  dipped  off*  down  to  the  milk- 
line,  which  is  readily  recognized  by 
the  blue  appearance  of  the  milk. 

In  the  fall  and  spri'ng  of  the  year 
the  cream,  as  it  is  dipped,  often 
goes  immediately  to  the  churns,  and 
is  churned  sweet.  In  summer  the 
cream  is  dipped  into  the  pails  and 
returned  to  the  pool  and  kept  there 
till  it  acquires  a  slightly  acid  taste, 
w^ien  it  is  ready  for  the  churns. 

The  cream  having  been  removed,  the  skimmed  milk  in 
the  pails  is  now  turned  into  the  cheese-vat  to  be  made 
into  "skim -cheese."  Tlie  ]iails  then  go  to  the  Avash- 
room,  where  they  are  thoroughly  cleansed  with  soap  and 
water,  and  set  upon  a  rack  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air. 
At  some  factories  the  pails,  after  being  cleansed  with  soap 
and  water,  are  placed  over  a  jet  of  steam  and  thoroughly 
scalded.  They  then  receive  a  jet  of  cold  water  and  go 
upon  the  rack  to  sun  and  dr3\  This  arrangement  is  a 
very  great  improvement  in  clennsing  dairy  utensils,  doing 
the  work  thoroughly  and  expeditiously. 

The  factories  do  not  all  operate  alike  in  regard  to  the 
time  of  setting  the  milk.  Where  an  extra  fancy  product 
of  butter  and  skimmed  cheese  is  desired,  none  of  the  milk 


FIG.    18. 


96 


WILLARD'S    PRACTICAL 


is  set  longer  thiin  twenty-four  hours,  and  at  these  fac- 
tories it  is  not  desired  to  take  all  the  cream  from  the 
milk,  but  only  the  best  part ;  and  the  balance  is  employed 
to  give  quality  to  the  "skim-cheese."  At  some  estab- 
lishments the  cream  is  allowed  to  turn  slightly  sour  before 
churning  ;  but  when  it  is  churned  sweet  the  buttermilk 
goes  into  the  vats  with  the  skimmed  milk  and  is  made 
into  cheese.  Some  factories  adopt  the  plan  of  holding 
the  morning's  milk  in  the  pools  for  thirty-six  hours  and 
the  night's  milk  for  twenty-four  hours ;  but  as  the 
skimmed  cheese  by  this  management  is  less  meaty  than 
by  the  other  method,  it  is  a  question  whether  any  more 
profit  is  realized  from  it. 

CHUKNS    AXD    CHURNING. 

From  experiments  with  different  kinds  of  churns,  many 
factory  butter-makers  are  of  opinion  that  for  quantity 
and  quality  of  product  from  a  given  quantity  of  cream, 
the  dash  churn  is  to  be  preferred. 

At  the  factories  the  barrel  and  a  half  or  "  two-barrel 
size"  is  preferred  ;  and  the  churns  should  be  made  with 
as  little  bilge  as  possible.  During  the  churning  it  is 
thought  desirable  to  keep  the  cream  from  rising  above 
60  degrees  in  temperature.  When  the  churns  are  started, 
the  temperature  of  the  cream  should  be  about  56  degrees ; 
and  it  has  been  found  that  the  best  results  are  obtained 
when  the  dashers  make  from  40  to  42  strokes  per  minute. 
At  this  rate  of  stroke,  and  no  less  than  one  hour  being 
consumed  in  the  process  of  churning,  if  the  temperature 
of  the  cream  be  kept  below  60  degrees,  or  no  highei-*than 
that,  the  butter  will  come  of  good  color  and  texture,  and 
will  be  in  the  right  condition  for  a  first-class  "  fancy  pro- 
duct," at  least,  so  far  as  it  can  be  made  by  the  operation 
of  churning.  It  is  important,  of  course,  that  the  cream  be 
in  the  proper  condition  Avhen  it  goes  to  the  churn ;  but 
the  manner  in  which  the  churning  is  conducted  has  a 
much  greater  influence  upon  the  product  than  many  peo- 
ple imagine. 

The  agitation  of  the  cream  over  the  whole  mass  should 
be  as  even  and  uniform  as  possible,  in  order  that  all  the 
cream  may  be  turned  into  butter  at  about  the  same  time. 
If  the  agitation  is  too  rapid,  or  if  it  be  unevenly  distributed 
through  the  mass,  apart  of  the  cream  will  come  to  butter 


BUTTDR    BOOK. 


97 


M'liilt'  a]);iit  will  remain  unc]i.ano:e(l,  and  by  tlie  time  the 
Avliole  mass  is  churned,  the  particles  of  butter  iirst  formed 
will  have  been  beaten  up  in  the  agitation  so  as  to  injure 
the  texture  ;  or  ])ortions  of  unchurned  cream  may  become 
mingled  with  the  butter,  thereby  not  only  lessening  tlie 
quantity  of  butter  from  a  given  quantity  of  cream,  but 
materially  injuring  its  quality.  Again,  in  order  to  pre- 
serve a  nice  tiavor  and  color,  as  well  as  fine  texture,  the 
mass  of  cream  while  churidng  must  not  be  allowed  to  rise 
to  a  high  temperature. 

It  will  be  seen,  then,  jto  regulate  all  these  points,  the 
proper  construction  of  the  churn-dasher  is  important. 
Numerous  experiments  have  been  made  with  differently 
formed  dashers,  and  finally  a  form  has  been  hit  upon  that 
gives  much  better  results  than  the  old  form  of  dasher 
heretofore  used.     I  give  an  illustration  (Fig.  19)  of  the 


Fig    10-Tlio   imprnvoi 
Chuni-Dasli  (lower  biile.) 


Pro.  20— The  Improved 
Chuin-Diish  (upper  side.) 


dasher,  and  its  proportions  as  adapted  to  the  "  two-barrel 
churn."  The  two  pieces  a  a  forming  the  dash  are  20 
^nches  long  by  6  inches  broad.*  They  are  halved  together 
in  the  center  so  as  to  form  a  cross,  the  handle  of  the 
dasher  going  througli  both  pieces  at  h.  The  holes  c  c  are 
made  by  boring  with  a  1  7-8  inch  bit  into  the  arms,  but 
not  qiiite  through.  Then  in  the  center  of  this  cavity  a  5-8 
inch  Ijole  is   cut  throuu;-h  the    arm.     The  holes  d  d  are 


made  in   tl 


le  same  wav, 


and  a  slot  connectins:  the  two  is 


*  In  thi-<  f^iit  thp  engr^vpr  has  not  rppreeented  the  right  proportions, 
the  pieces  forming  the  disher  be :ni?  too  narrow  for  their  length. 


98 


WILLARD'S    PRACTICAL 


cut  partly  tlirougli  ilio  tiinl)or,  in  tlie  center  of  wliuli  a 
narrow  slot  goes  entirely  throngh  the  arm.  This  forms 
the  lower  side  of  the  dash,  the  upper  side  being  shown  in 
Fig.  20. 

In  a  recent  tour  among  the  l)utter  factories,  I  saAv  the 
churns  in  operation  with  the  improved  dasher,  and  with 
other  shaped  dashers  ;  all  were  worked  at  the  same 
time,  and  with  the  same  power,  and  it  Avas  plainly  evi- 
dent that  the  improved  dasher  did  the.  best  work,  Avhile 


the  temperature  of  tlie  cream,  which  I  tested  from  time 
to  time,  was  more  even  and  lower  than  in  the  other 
churns.  In  some  districts  the  large  dash  chui-n  is  con- 
structed with  a  hoop  at  the  top  to  receive  the  churn 
cover.  Tills  causes  considerable  trouble  in  cleansing,  as 
particles  of    cream    and  milk  are  liable    to    work  down 


BUTTER    BOOK.  q^ 

between  the  lioop  and  staves,  tliereby  becoming  foul,  un- 
less extra  care  and  I'lbor  be  taken  in  cleansing.  In  the 
Orange  County  factories  a  part  of  the  staves  is  cut  away 
to  receive  the  churn  cover,  thus  doing  away  with  the 
cumbersome  hoops,  and  rendering  the  churn  neater  in 
appearance,  and  more  easily  cleaned. 

The  cut  on  preceding  page,  Fig.  21,  Avill  illustrate  the 
manner  in  which  the  churns  are  attached  to  the  motive 
power. 

Usually,  four  (of  the  dash-churns)  churns  are  placed  iu 
pairs  opposite,  or  two  side  by  side,  so  as  to  be  all  worked 
by  the  i)ower  at  the  same  time.  From  sixty  to  seventy 
quarts  of  cream  are  put  into  each  churn,  and  each  mess 
of  cream  then  receives  from  twelve  to  sixteen  quarts  of 
water,  for  the  purpose  of  diluting  it  and  bringing  it  to 
a  temperature  of  about  56  degrees  to  60  degrees.  Iu 
warm  weather  cold  spring  water  is  used,  and  in  cold 
weather  warm  water. 

Some  prefer  diluting  the  cream  with  water  and  pass- 
ing it  through  a  sieve  before  putting  it  in  the  churns, 
in  order  that  the  particles  of  cream  may  all  be  of  uniform 
size  ;  since  if  the  butter  does  not  come  evenly,  but  is 
mixed  Avith  small  particles  of  cream,  it  will  soon  dete- 
riorate, and  will  not  make  a  prime  or  foncy  article.  This 
point  is  considered  of  great  importance  by  the  best  but- 
ter makers,  and  it  is  claimed  that  the  method  of  setting 
the  milk  in  deep  pails,  by  which  a  thin  cream  is  ol> 
tained,  rather  than  the  thick,  leathery  masses  skimmed 
from  milk  set  in  pans,  renders  it  more  evenly  churned, 
and  thus  secures  a  better  product.  It  is  partly  on  this 
account,  also,  that  it  is  preferred  to  have  the  churning 
occupy  from  half  to  threequarters  of  an  hour,  since  it 
has  been  found  that  when  the  butter  comes  too  quickly 
it  is  more  or  less  injured. 

In  warm  weather  ice  is  sometimes  broken  up  and  put 
in  tl)e  churn  to  reduce  the  temperature  of  the  cream; 
but  it  is  deemed  better  to  churn  without  ice,  if  the 
cream  does  not  rise  above  64  deg.  F.  in  the  process  of 
churning,  as  butter  made  with  ice  is  believed  to  be 
nu)  e  sensitive  to  heat.  It  is,  however,  a  less  evil  to 
use  ice  than  to  have  the  butter  oome  from  the  churn 
white  and  soft.  In  cJiurning^  the  dasJters  are  so  arranged 
as  so  fjo    dowmcard  lolthin    a   quarter    of  an    inch  of 


■^QQ  WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 

the  bottom  of  the  cJiirni^    cntd   to  rise  above    the  cream 
in  their  upward  stroke. 

The  temperature  of  the  cream  Avhile  being  churned, 
should  be  kept  below  65  deg. ;  for  if  at  the  close  of 
the  churinng  the  buttermilk  should  be  at  that  tem- 
perature or  above  it,  the  flavor  and  color  of  the  butter 
will  be  injured.     In  cold    weather,  the  temperature   of 


Fig.  22. 


the  cream,  when  ready  for  churning,  is  a  little  higher 
than  in  warm  weather,*  about  02  deg.  being  considered 
the  right   point.     Facloryi^icn  i«refer    tliat  the  churning 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


101 


should  occupy  on  au  average  about  forty-five  minutes ; 
a  half-hour  being  the  shortest  space  of  time,  and  an 
liour  the  longest,  that  sliould  be  employed  in  tnis  oper- 
ation. When  the  butter  begins  to  come,  the  churn  is 
rinsed  down  with  cold  spring  water.  Tlie  butter  should 
come  of  a  firm  or  solid  consistency  and  of  a  rich  yellow 
color. 

OTHER    FACTORY    CHURNS. 

Recently  the  Messrs.  Blanchards  of  Concord,  N.  H., 
have  introduced  a  factory  churn  that  has  superior  merits, 
and  is  coming  rapidly  into  use.  The  illustration,  Fig.  22, 
on  page  100,  shows  its  general  form. 

The  dasher  shaft  is  of  iron,  and  upon  the  end  which 
projects  outside  the  churn,  is  an  iron  driving  puUy,  which 
should  make  twenty-five  or  thirty  revolutions  per  minute. 
The  speed  may  be  regulated  according  to  the  judgment 
of  the  operator.  An  ingenious  arrangement  allows  the 
shaft  to  be  withdrawn  through  the  box  near  the  driving 
pully,  leaving  the  dasher  free  to  be  lifted  out  as  in  their 
smaller  churns.  This  gives  the  greatest  possible  facility 
for  handling  the  butter, 
that  the  progress  of  the 
churning  can  be  seen, 
without  stopping  the 
motion  of  the  daslier,  or 
lifting  the  cover.  In 
some  factories  the  re- 
volving barrel  churn  is 
used  and  gives  satis-  ^ 
faction.  I  give  an  illus- 
tration of  the  form 
usually  employed  in 
Fig.  23. 

The  churning  is  some- 
times done  by  horse- 
power. There  are  a 
variety  of  powers,  but 
that  most  commonly  used  at  the  old  factories  in  Orange 
County  is  simply  a  large,  circular  platform  or  wooden 
wheel,  built  about  an  u])right  shaft,  the  end  of  which  turns 
in  a  socket.  Tlie  wheel  sets  upon  an  incline,  so  that  the 
liorse,  by  walking  constantly  on  one  side,  keeps  it  in  mo- 
tion.    At  the  upper  end  of  the  shaft,  gearing  is  arranged 


102 


WILLARD'S    FHACTICAL 


SO  as  to  give  molioii  to  the  cliurns.  More  recently  a  small 
engine  in  connection  with  the  heating  arrangement  for  the 
skim-cheet^e  department  has  been  used  to  supply  power 
for  driving  the  churns.  I  shall  refer  to  these  with  illus- 
trations in  another  place. 

EXPELLING    THE    BUTTERMILK  AND    SALTING. 

The  bntter  is  now  removed  from  the  churns,  and  care 
is  taken  never  to  touch  it  more  than  is  necessary  with  the 
hands.  It  is  lifted  with  the  ladle  into  elliptical  Avooden 
trays,  and  the  buttermilk  is  rinsed  out  with  cold  spring 
water.  In  this  proceeding  the  ladle  is  used  lightly,  while 
the  water  being  turned  over  the  butter  is  allowed  to  pass 
off  at  one  end  of  the  tray.  This  process  is  repeated  two 
or  three  times,  when  nearly  all  the  buttermilk  will  have 
been  rinsed  away. 

Some  use  a  sprinkler  for  washing  the  butter.  The 
batch  of  butter,  or  the  "  churning,"  say  of  twenty  to 
twenty-five  pounds  in  weight,  is  laid  upon  the  butter- 
worker,  and  Avater  applied  from  a  sprinkler  or  small 
w^atering  pot.  It  is  provided  with  a  rose  nozzle  so  as  to 
distribute  the  Avater  over  the  mass  in  numberless  small 
streams.  The  Avatering-pot  is  lield  Avith  the  left  hand, 
and  the  butter  Avorked  Avith  the  right  hand  at  the  same 
time,  by  applying  the  lever,  going  rapidly  over  from  one 
side  of  the  mass  to  the  other. 

The  butter  being  on  the  inclined  slab  or  bed-piece  of 
the  butter-Avorker,  the  buttermilk  floAvs  off  readily,  and 
by  a  few  movements  of  the  lever  the  buttermilk  is  ex- 
pelled. When  the  Avater  floAvs  from  the  mass  Avithout 
being  discolored  the  process  of  w\ashing  is  completed. 
The  sprinkler  should  be  of  small  size,  or  no  larger  than  can 
be  conveniently  handled  Avith  the  left  hand  in  the  manner 
above  described.  The  Avater,  falling  in  a  spray  over  the 
Avhole  surface  of  the  butter,  cools  it  and  giA^es  the  proper 
degree  of  hardness  for  working  Avith  the  lever,  a  point  of 
considerable  importance,  especially  in  hot  Aveather.  When 
the  butter-milk  has  been  expelled,  the  butter  is  ready  for 
salting,  and  the  butter-worker  is  used  for  incorporating  the 
salt  evenly  thi-ough  the  mass.  Salt  is  noAv  added,  and 
AVorked  through  the  butter  Avith  the  butter-Avorker,  at  the 
rate  of  18  ounces  for  22  pounds  of  butter.  Great  care  is 
taken  that  the  salt  be  pure,  and  of  those  brands  that  are 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


103 


known  to  be  free  from  the  cliloride  ot'ciilciiim,  as  a  trace  of 
this  impurity  gives  a  bitter  taste  to  the  butter.  For  butter 
tiiat  is  designed  to  be  kept  over  for  the  winter  markets, 
a  little  more  salt  is  sometimes  used,  often  as  high  as  an 
ounce  of  salt  to  a  pound  of  butter.  Not  unfrequently  a 
teaspoonful  of  saltpeter  and  a  tablespoonful  of  Avhite 
sugar  are  added,  at  the  last  working,  for  22  pounds  of 
b;  letter. 

Considerable  discussion  has  recently  arisen  about  the 
use  of  saltpeter  in  butter,  some  holding  that  it  cannot  be 
healthful  even  though  employed  in  small  quantities,  that 
it  adds  nothing  to  the  flavor  or  quality  of  the  butter,  that 
it  has  no  preserving  properties,  and  hence  should  be  ban- 
ished from  the  dairy  by  all  good  butter-makers.  With- 
out entering  upon  an  elaborate  discussion  of  this  question 
it  will  snflice,  perhaps,  to  say  that  saltpeter  has  been  used 
from  time  immemorial  in  curing  meats,  and  of  the  thou- 
sands who  thus  annually  employ  it,  I  have  yet  to  hear  of  a 
single  authenticated  case  where  it. has  proved  injurious. 

The  butter-makers  of  Orange  County  claim  that,  by 
the  use  of  saltpeter,  butter  will  retain  its  flavor,  and 
keep  sound  longer  in  hot  weather  than  when  it  is  not 
used.  They*  say  that  many  direct  experiments  have 
been  made  to  test  this  j^oint,  and  in  every  instance  the 
samples  of  butter  cured  with  saltpetre,  kept  sweet  longer 
and  were  better  saved  than  those  samples  where  it  was 
not  used.  For  curing  butter  made  in  summer,  there- 
fore, the  following  mixture  is  often  used,  viz:  For  every 
22  pounds  of  butter  16  ounces  of  salt,  1  teaspoonful 
of  saltpetre,  and  a  table-spoonful  of  the  best  powdered 
Avhite  sugar.  In  preparing  this  mixture,  Ashton  salt 
or  best  Onondaga  factory  filled,  is  crushed  under  a 
roller  to  free  it  from  all  lumps;  it  is  then  run  through 
a  sieve,  and  then  saltpetre,  after  being  reduced  to  a 
powder,  is  evenly  mingled  with  the  sugar  through  the 
salt. 

In  the  matter  of  salt,  however,  the  factories  adapt  the 
quantity  to  suit  the  taste  of  their  customers,  or  for  difler- 
ent  markets.  Of  late  years,  light-salted  butter  sells  best, 
and  the  rate  of  salting  varies  from  one-half  to  three- 
fourths  of  an  ounce  of  salt  to  the  pound  of  butter.  The 
butter,  after  having  been  salted  and  worked,  is  allowed 
to  stand  until  evening  and  is  then  worked  a  second  time 


104  WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 

and  packed.  In  liot  weatlier,  as  soon  as  tlie  butter  is 
salted  and  worked  over,  it  is  taken  to  the  pools  and  im- 
mersed in  water,  wliere  it  remains  mitil  evening,  when  il 
is  taken  out,  worked  over  and  packed.  For  this  purpose 
a  separate  pool  is  provided,  wliich  is  used  only  for  butter  ; 
it  is  called  the  "butter  pool,"  and  fresh  spring  water 
constantly  flows  in  and  out  of  it,  as  in  the  pools  "for  set- 
ting the  milk. 

WORKING    THE    BUTTER. 

In  working^  the  butter,  considerable  skill  and  experience 
are  required  that  the  grain  of  the  butter  shall  not  be  in- 
jured. The  butter  must  have  a  peculiar  firmness  and  fine- 
ness of  texture  and  a  wax-like  appearance  when  fractured, 
which  an  improper  handling,  in  expelling  the  buttermilk 
and  working,  will  destroy.  Care  is  taken,  therefore,  not 
to  overwork  it  nor  subject  it  to  a  grinding  manipulation 
like  tempering  mortar,  as  this  spoils  the  grain  and  renders 
the  butter  of  a  greasy  or  salve-like  texture. 

The  butter  is  worked  with  butter-workers.     The  one 

in  most  common   use 
=*5:^         consists  of  an  inclined 
slab     standing     upon 
legs,  and  with  beveled 
^^  sides       about       three 
"^^'     inches  high    (see  Fiu. 
24).     The  slab  is  four 
feet    long  by  two  feet 
FIG.  24.  wide  at  the  upper  end 

and  tapering  down 
four  inches  at  the  lower  end,  where  there  is  a  cross-piece, 
with  a  slot  for  the  reception  of  the  end  of  the  lever.  There 
is  also  an  opening  at  this  end  for  the  escape  of  the  butter- 
milk into  a  pail  below.  The  lever  is  made  either  with  four 
or  eight  sides  and  the  end  fits  loosely  in  the  slot,  so  as  to  be 
Avorked  in  any  direction.  It  is  quite  simple,  but  does 
good  execution  and  is  much  liked  at  the  butter  factories. 
The  Champiox  Butter-Worker  (Fig.  25)  is  a  but- 
ter-worker, weigher  and  salt -crusher  combined.  The 
operation  of  this  worker  is  on  the  same  principle  of  a 
hand  and  ladle,  Avhile  the  scales  are  so  nicely  arranged 
that  any  one  can  do  the  weighing  without  lifting.  This 
machine  is  furnished  by  Whitman  &  Burrell,  Little 
Falls,  X.  Y. 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


105 


CHAMPION     BUrXEK-WORKER. 

After  the  butter  has  been  washed,  a  batch  weighing  22 
lbs.  is  laid  upon  the  inclined  slab,  or  butter-worker,  first 
described,  and  then  spread  oat  with  the  ladle.  Pure 
Ashton  or  Onondaga  salt,  made  fine  by  rolling,  is  now 
sprinkled  over  the  mass  and  the  lever  applied,  first  be- 


FIG.  25. 

ginning  at  one  side  until  the  whole  is  gone  ovc".  Only 
a  few  manipulations  of  this  kind  are  required  to  work  in 
the  salt  and  complete  this  part  of  the  process. 

As  it  is  important  that  the  buttermilk  should  be  com- 
pletely removed,  this  is  facilitated  during  the  working 
process  by  applying  a  slightly-dampened  napkin  to  the 
surface,  or  by  the  use  of  a  damp  sponge  covered  with  a 
napkin  for  the  purpose. 

ADDITIONAL     SUGGESTIONS     IN     WASHING,     WORKING     AND 
SALTING     BUTTER. 

Mr.  S.  E.  Lewis  of  Oxford,  N.  Y.,  has  some  very  good 
RuofQ-estions  in  rei^ard  to  treatino:  the  butter  after  churn- 
ing: 


IQQ  WILLARDS   PRACTICAL 

"  When  the  butter  comes,"  he  says,  "  and  as  soon  as 
the  dash  churns  clean,  take  off  the  churn ;  do  not  gather 
the  butter  with  the  dasher  in  the  churn  (as  is  usually 
done) ;  do  not  gather  it  at  all,  but  have  a  hair  sieve,  which 
first  wet  in  hot  and  then  in  cold  water,  so  that  the  butter 
wnll  not  stick  to  it.  Then  have  a  piece  of  a  board  that 
will  fit  inside  of  the  churn  to  hold  the  butter  back ;  turn 
the  buttermilk  from  the  churn  through  the  sieve.  When 
the  buttermilk  is  drained  out,  let  the  butter  remain  in  the 
churn ;  then  take  your  water,  holding  it  up  high  as  your 
head,  and  pour  it  upon  the  butter  in  a  stream  sufficiently 
large  so  that  it  will  force  its  way  through  the  butter  ; 
keep  the  stream  moving  about  upon  the  butter.  This 
will  separate  the  little  balls  of  butter;  fill  up  the  churn 
with  w\ater  until  what  little  buttermilk  there  was  in  the 
butter  is  diluted  to  that  extent  that  there  will  be  no  ne- 
cessity of  changing  the  w^ater,  and  the  result  will  be  that 
your  butter  is  washed  or  the  butt<n-milk  all  rinsed  out  of 
the  butter  without  breaking,  marring  or  injuring  a  single 
grain  of  the  butter. 

WORKING    IN    THE    SALT, 

"  When  it  sufficiently  hardens  in  the  water,  take  it  out 
for  salting,  using  the  ladle  to  get  out  most  of  it,  then  the 
sieve.  Now  comes  the  salting  and  working.  For  a  but- 
ter-w^orker  an  inclined  plane  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  A, 
with  a  round  lever,  is  preferred.  Spread  the  butter  upon 
the  worker,  then  put  on  half  the  quantity  of  salt  you 
desire  to  use,  roll  it  in,  then  with  a  small,  flat,  wooden 
shovel,  turn  one-half  of  it  over  on  to  the  top  of  the  other 
half;  put  on  half  of  the  remaining  salt,  roll  it  back ;  do 
the  other  half  in  the  same  w^ay,  and  then  put  on  the  bal- 
ance of  the  salt ;  then  work  the  salt  in  somewhat,  taking 
particular  care  not  to  let  the  lever  slip  on  the  butter 
w^hile  working  it.  Always  let  the  lever  go  on  the  butter 
in  a  rolling  motion.  If  you  allow  the  lever  to  slip  on  the 
butter,  it  will  destroy  the  grain  and  make  it  look  shiny. 
Set  the  butter  away  in  a  cool  place  at  night ;  put  it  on 
the  worker ;  w^ork  it  a  little,  then  let  it  stand  until  morn- 
ing, and  work  again  just  enough  to  be  sure  the  streaks 
are  out  (the  white  streaks  are  parts  that  have  not  taken 
Bait),  then  pack.     The  butter-worker  should  stand  face  to 


BUTTER    BOOK.  107 

the  liglit.     The  best  butter  boAvls  to  use  are  the  white 
oak  butter  tubs." 

Mr.  Lewis  is  the  mauager  of  a  creamery,  and  he  ex- 
presses the  opinion  that  as  much  butter  can  be  made  on 
the  plan  of  setting  the  milk  deep  as  by  shallow  settings. 
He  recommends  that  the  cream  of  each  milking  should  be 
churned  by  itself,  or  if  the  cream  of  different  milkings  is 
to  be  churned,  the  cream  of  such  milkings  should  be 
mixed  at  least  eight  to  ten  hours  before  churning.  Enough 
milk  should  always  be  skimmed  in  with  the  cream  to 
give  the  butter  when  it  comes  a  clean,  bright  color. 

PACKIXG. 

The  butter  is  packed  in  firkins,  in  half-firkins,  and  in 
Orange  County  pails.  The  pails  are  "  return  pails  " — 
that  is,  they  are  not  sold  with  the  butter,  but  are  to  be 
returned  to  the  factory  after  the  purchaser  has  taken  out 
the  butter.  They  hold  about  sixty  pounds  of  butter,  are 
of  white  oak,  nicely  made,  and  strongly  hooped  with 
lieavy  band-iron.  They  liave  movable  covers  that  fit 
closely,  and  are  fastened  witii  wooden  bolts  or  metallic 
clasps.  The  firkins  are  made  of  white  oak,  heavily  hooped, 
and  the  sides  neatly  turned. 

The  greatest  attention  is  paid  to  have  the  packages 
perfectly  tight,  so  as  not  to  permit  the  least  leakage. 
White  oak  is  regarded  as  the  best  material  for  packages, 
and  the  butter  factories  use  no  other.  The  firkins  hold 
about  100  pounds  each.  The  half-firkin  is  simply  the 
firkin  sawed  in  two  and  provided  with  an  oak  head,  which 
is  nailed  on  the  top  of  the  package  after  it  is  filled. 

The  firkin  is  prepared  for  use  by  soaking  in  cold  water, 
after  that  in  scalding  Avater,  and  then  again  in  cold 
water.  It  is  then  either  filled  with  brine  and  soaked  24 
hours  or  the  inside  is  thoroughly  rubbed  Avith  dry  salt 
and  left  to  stand  for  a  short  time,  when  it  is  considered 
ready  for  use. 

In  packing  the  butter  it  is  pressed  together  as  solidly 
as  may  be,  and  when  the  firkin  is  filled  it  is  immediately 
lieaded  up  and  a  strong  brine  poured  through  a  hole  in 
the  top  head,  to  fill  the  intervening  spaces.  The  orifice 
is  then  closed,  and  the  firkin  is  set  in  a  cool  cellar  until  it 
is  ready  to  be  sent  to  market.  When  the  half-firkin  is 
filled,  a  dry  cloth,  cut  so  as  to  entirely  cover  the  butter, 


108 


WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 


is  spread  over  it  and  covered  witli  a  thin  layer  of  salt. 
The  cover  is  then  fastened  on  and  tlie  package  is  set  away 
in  a  dry,  cool  place  until  it  is  taken  to  market. 

The  best  Avooden  package  I  have  ever  seen  is  the  Wes- 
cott  Return  Butter  Pail,  manufactured  by  Silsby  Bros., 
Belmont,  N.  Y.  It  is  made  of  the  best  kiln-dried  white 
oak,  matched  and  turned  perfectly  inside  and  outside.  I 
give  in  Fig.  26  an  illustration  of  this  pail,  and  add  the  fol- 
lowing sensible  hints  which  the  manufacturers  send  out 
with  their  packages  : 

"  To  neutralize  the  odor  and  sap  of  the  Avood,  and  to 
drive  from  the  cells  of  the  wood  the  air  which  taints  the 
butter,  the  pails  ought  to  be  thoroughly  soaked  with  hot 
brine  made  from  the  same  kind  of  salt  with  which  the 
butter  is  cured,  and  not  used  over  and  over  again,  until 
the  bitter  taste  of  the  wood  has  destroyed  the  use  of  the 
brine,  but  thrown  away  after  each  pail  is  scalded.  After 
the  pail  is  thus  prepared,  pack  the  butter  solidly,  putting- 
en  the  top  of  it  a  clean,  white  cloth,  and  cover  the  cloth 
with  a  layer  of  the  same  kind  of  salt,  half  an  inch  in 
thickness. 

Each  time  your  pails  are  returned  from  the  city,  scald 
and  cleanse  them  thoroughly." 

Small  return  but- 
ter pails  similar  in 
construction  to 

''  Wescott's  Re- 
turn Pail"  and  eacli 
holding  five  pounds 
have  been  used  in 
sending  "fancy  but- 
ter" to  market. 
These  little  ]>ack- 
ages,  or  tubs,  are 
provided  with  a 
cover  which  fistens 
with  a  clasp.  They 
are  very  neatly  made  of  oak  and  hooped  with  brass  oV 
galvanized  iron,  whichgives  them  a  handsome  appearance. 
They  are,  when  filled,  packed  in  cases,  twelve  packages  in' 
a  case,  in  two  tiers,  one  above  another.  Aboard  is  placed 
between  tlie  upper  and  lower  tiers  and  is  secured  in  the 
following  maimer: 


Fig.  2G.  . 


BUTTER    BOOK.  IO9 

There  is  a  cleat  runiung  roiiiul  tlie  box  on  the  inside 
about  the  higlit  of  the  packages,  so  that  when  the  flrst 
six  packages  are  arranged  in  place  the  division -board 
goes  down  upon  tlie  cleat  covering  ihe  lower  packages, 
and  upon  this  board  the  upper  tier  of  packages  is  placed. 
The  lid  of  the  case  is  then  brought  down  and  fastened 
with  a  clasp,  and  the  packages  go  safely  to  market  with- 
out shaking  or  moving.  The  butter  in  each  package  is 
stamped  with  a  mold,  so  as  to  leave  the  imprint  of  the 
maker's  name  under  a  rose. 

Kecently,  Mr.  Chaeles  H.  White  of  White  Station, 
Michigan,  has  invented  a  method  for  keeping  butter  sweet 
for  long  periods,  Avhicli  proves  to  be  excellent  and  worthy 
of  general  adoption.  His  plan  is  to  have  tight  and  strongly 
hooped  tubs  of  oak,  with  heads  at  both  ends.  The  tubs 
are  14  inches  in  diameter  at  top  and  9  inches  at  bottom, 
Tind  about  16  inches  high.  Fig.  27  will  illustrate  their  gen- 
oral  form.  A  sack  of  Avhite  cotton  is  made  to  fit  the  tub 
for  the  reception  of  the  butter.  It  is  placed  in  the  tub 
as  it  stands  on  the  small  end  (Fig,  27),  the  sides  of  the 
sack  being  long  enough  to  extend  over  the  top  of  the  tub. 

The  butter  is  packed  iirmly  in  this  sack  until  within  an 
inch  and  three-eighths  of  the  toj)  of  the  tub,  when  a  cir- 
cular piece  of  cloth  is  laid  on  the  top  of  the  butter,  and 
the  sides  of  the  sack  are  brought  over  and  nicely  plaited 
down  over  the  circular  cover.  A  layer  of  fine  salt  is  now 
laid  on  the  top,  the  head  is  put  in,  and  the  hoops  are 
driven  so  as  to  make  a  perfectly  tight  fit  that  Avill  admit 
of  no  leakage.  Tlie  tub  is  then  turned  upon  the  large 
head  and  the  butter  in  the  sack  drops  down  upon  the 
larger  end,  leaving  a  space  between  it  i.nd  the  sides  and 
top  of  the  tub,  as  will  be  seen  by  Fig.  28,  representing  a 
section  of  the  tub  filled  with  butter  and  standing  on  the 
large  end.  Strong  brine  is  then  poured  into  the  tub  at  cir, 
till  it  fills  the  intervening  space  c  c  c  c  between  the  tub 
and  the  butter,  when  the  hole  is  closed  perfectly  tight 
with  a  cork.  The  brine  floats  the  butter  so  that  it  is 
completely  surrounded  with,  the  liquid,  and  thus  it  is 
efl*ectually  excluded  from  the  air.  Butter  packed  in  this 
way,  and  placed  in  a  cool,  clean,  well-ventilated  cellar, 
keeps  sweet  and  sound  for  long  periods,  and  will  go  to 
market  in  prime  condition. 

When  the  butter  is  to  be  used  the  tub  is  turned  on  the 


;^;^Q  WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 

small  end,  the  hoops  are  started,  and  the  large  head  is 
taken  off,  when  the  V)utter  may  be  lifted  entirely  out  of 
the  tub  by  taking  hold  of  the  ends  of  the  sack.  It  may 
be  placed  upon  a  platter  or  large  e'arthern  dish,  the  cloth 
removed  from  the  top,  and  the  butter  cut  in  desirable 
shapes  for  the  table  or  for  sale.  If  any  portion  remains 
or  is  not  wanted  for  immediate  use,  it  may  be  returned  to 
the  tub,  and  in  this  way  it  can  be  preserved  for  future  use. 
Butter  for  the  winter  market  is  often  packed  in  firkins 
holding  from  60  to  80  lbs.     The  firkins   are  made  strong 


Fig.  27— Package  for  keeping 
Butter  fur  lung  periods. 


Fig.  28— Section  of  Package  for  keep- 
ing Butter  for  long  periods. 


Fig.  28. 


and  tight,  are  provided  with  heads,  and  when  filled  are 
headed  up  and  brine  poured  through  a  hole  in  the  top 
head,  so  as  to  fill  all  intervening  spaces.  In  packing  bnt- 
ter  for  market,  it  is  important  to  have  a  neat  and  well- 
made  package.  If  due  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
manufacture  and  to  the  packages,  and  if  the  butter  has 
been  preserved  sweet  and  soimd,  there  will  be  no  trouble 
in  marketing  it  at  a  good  price. 

PACKAGE    FOR    BUTTER    PRINTS. 

During  the  summer  of  1874  I. was  in  Virginia  and  vis- 
ited the  butter  factory  of  Edward  J.  Smith,  near  Lin- 
coln, Loudoun  County.  At  this  factory,  which  is  on  the 
pool  system,  the  butter  is  accurately  weighed  in  half- 
pound  lumps  and  then  pressed  in  a  mold,  receiving  a  neat 
stamp.  The  prints  are  oval  in  shape,  about  2^by3| 
inches  and  2  inches  thick,  and  after  stamping,  each  print 
is  wrapped  in  white  muslin,  the  cloth  being  cut  in  small 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


Ill 


squares,  the  print  laid  upon  it  and  tlie  corners  of  the  cloth 
coming  up  on  the  sides  of  the  print.  This  gives  it  a  very 
nice  appearance. 

The  butter  is  made  for  the  Washington  Market  and  is 
shipped  in  boxes,  having  an  ice  chamber  in  the  center. 
Tiie  boxes   are  31  ^ 

by  16^  inches  and  > CiL 

15  inches  deep. 
See  Fig.  29.  The 
ice  chest  is  of  tin, 
placed  in  the  cen- 
ter of  the  box,  and 
is  16^  by  5  inches, 
15  inches  deep. 
At  the  bottom 
there  is  a  hole,  ^ 
which  extends  al-  = 
so  through the box  = 
for  the  escape  of 
water  from  the  ^ 
ice  as  it  melts. 
Movable  shelves,  with  cleats  on  the  edges,  are  fitted  on 
each  side  of  the  ice  chest,  the  one  above  the  other,  for 
holding  the  prints.  .  The  box  holds  10  shelves,  5  on  each 
side  of  the  ice  chamber,  and  the  shelves,  when  in  place, 
leave  a  space  between  each  of  2^  inches,  or  just  sufficient 
to  clear  the  tops  of  the  prints. 

Each  shelf  holds  20  prints  or  10  pounds  of  butter,  and 
consequently,  the  box  holds  just  100  pounds.  The  whole 
package  when  filled,  and  the  chamber  packed  aiid  closed,, 
weighs  224  pounds. 


Fig.  29. 


CREAMERY    FOR    A    SMALL    NUMBER    OF    COWS. 

In  the  accompanying  cut.  Fig.  30,  I  give  an  illustration' 
of  the  Union  Creamery  in  Madison  County,  New  York,, 
which  is  designed  to  take  the  milk  from  150  to  200  cows. 
I  visited  this  factory  during  the  latter  part  of  1874.. 
Skimmed  cheese  is  not  made  at  the  establishment,  the- 
skimmed  milk  beingtaken  away  by  patrons  and  fed  tO' 
swine  and  calves.  The  milk  is  kept  longer  in  the  pools^ 
than  at  creameries  where  skim-cheese  is  made  in  connec- 
tion with  butter  manufacture. 


112 


WILLARD-S    PRACTICAL 


The  building  is  in  the  sliape  of  an  L,  the  main  struc- 
ture being  36  feet  long  by  16  feet  broad.  One  side 
sets  against  a  bank,  the  earth  being  excavated  or  cut  down 
below  the  surface  from  three  to  four  feet.  The  pool,  P.R. 
as  will  be  seen  from  the  cut,  is  13x21  feet  and  is  reached 
from  the  delivery  Avindow  by  the  passage  way  or  walk 
P.  W.,  which  is  three  feet  wide.  Stout  planks  are  thrown 
r^  across  the  pool  at  such 

^-^\  p    ^  points  as  are  desired 

'  '       '  A  A.  A  A.,    in   order 


J ""]. 


Fig. 


to  facilitate  the  hand- 
ling of  the  milk.  The 
principal  objection  to 
this  arrangement  is, 
that  the  temperature 
of  the  milk  in  the  pool 
can  not  be  kept  uni- 
form ;  for  as  the  warm 
milk  is  delivered  morn- 
ing and  evening,  the 
water  in  the  pool  must 
be  raised  in  temperature  more  or  less,  according  to  the 
quantity  of  warm  milk  added.  We  think  it  would  have 
been  better  to  have  separated  the  pool  into  parts  or  di- 
A'isions. 

The  churn-room,  C.  K.,  is  12x18  feet,  and  in  the  wall 
between  it  and  the  engine-room  there  is  a  large  wooden 
tank,  T,  about  2^  to  3  feet  high,  with  hinged  covers,  one 
in  each  room,  so  that  the  water  may  be  supplied  in  both 
apartments  from  the  same  tank.  The  water  in  the  tank 
is  heated  from  the  boiler,  E,  in  the  engine-room,  E.R.,  by 
means  of  pipes.  This  arrangement  is  very  convenient. 
D  is  tlie  delivery  window  and  C  is  the  churn. 


TREATMENT    OF    THE    MILK. 


The  milk,  as  it  is  received,  is  placed  in  pails,  eight 
inches  in  diameter  by  twenty  inches  long,  and  these  are 
immediately  plunged  in  the  water.  The  water  in  the 
pool  is  about  eighteen  inches  deep  and  its  temperature  at 
the  spring  is  from  49  to  50  degrees  Fahr.  About  650 
pails  are  required  for  setting  the  milk,  which  is  held  in 
the  pools  from  three  to  four  days  before  skimming.     The 


BUTTER     BOOK.  J  ;[  3 

milk  is  kept  this  lengtli  of  time  in  il.o  |;ool  nirder  tlie  im- 
pression that  more  cream  will  he  ohtaiiied  than  when  the 
milk  sets  only  48  hours. 

The  manufacturer,  Mr.  J.  S.  Dakt,  in  experimenting 
with  milk  set  at  different  lengths  of  time  finds  that  when 
it  has  set  48  liours  and  is  then  skimmed  and  the  pails 
returned  to  the  pool,  enough  more  cream  will  rise  to  pay 
for  keeping  in  the  pool  for  the  time  named.  After  the 
cream  is  removed  the  skimmed  milk  goes  to  the  patrons 
of  the  factory  and  is  used  for  feeding  calves  and  hogs. 

CHUKNIXG    AND    WASHING. 

The  churn  used  is  the  revolving  barrel  churn  known  as 
the  Philadelphia.  The  churn  holds  90  gallons,  but  only 
about  70  gallons  of  cream  can  be  churned  at  a  time. 
Tlie  cream  is  left  in  the  pool  until  it  becomes  slightly  acid, 
wdien  from  50  to  60  gallons  are  placed  in  the  churn,  the 
temperature  of  the  cream  in  summer  being  about  58 
Fahr.  and  in  cool  weather  from  60  to  62  Fahr.  The 
churn  is  regulated  so  as  to  make  about  40  revolutions  in 
a  minute,  and  so  soon  as  the  cream  begins  to  swell  the 
vent  is  opened  to  let  out  the  gas.  The  churning  occu- 
pies from  an  hour  to  an  hour  and  one-half,  when  the  but- 
ter should  come  in  grains  from  the  size  of  a  wheat  kernel 
to  that  of  a  pea.  The  buttermilk  is  then  di-awn  oif  and 
the  butter  w^ashed  in  the  churn  by  pouring  in  cold  water 
and  allowing   it  to  revolve  for  about  one  minute. 

WORKING    AND    SALTING. 

The  butter  now  goes  into  the  salting  tray,  wdiich  is  38 
inches  long  by  20  inches  broad  and  6  inches  high.  This  is 
placed  on  the  floor  under  the  churn,  and  the  churn  being 
opened  the  butter  falls  into  the  tray.  For  the  New  York 
market,  three-fourths  of  an  ounce  of  salt  to  the  pound  of 
butter  is  used,  but  for  the  home  market  one  ounce  of  salt 
is  employed.  The  Ashton  salt  is  preferred,  and  it  is 
w^orked  through  the  butter  as  evenly  as  possible,  a  thin 
paddle,  having  a  blade  7  inches  long  by  five  wide,  being 
used  for  the  purpose.  The  butter  is  Avorked  as 
little  as  possible  in  salting,  and  is  then  thrown  loosely  into 
tubs  wdiich  are  immediately  immersed  in  the  pool 
and  remain  there  until  next  day,  when  the  butter  is 
taken  out  and  worked  on  a  butter-worker.     When    the 


114 


WILLATvD  G    PRACTICAL 


working  48  completed,  as  above  described,  the  butter  is 
packed  in  "return  butter  pails"  and  goes  to  New  York 
City,  the  price  paid  at  the  factory  being  within  two 
cents  per  pound  of  the  best  quotations  for  fancy  butter  in 
the  city. 

RESULTS. 

During  the  month  of  June,  25  pounds  of  milk  on  an 
average  yielded  one  pound  of  butter.  In  August,  24 
pounds  of  milk  made  a  pound  of  butter,  and  during 
September  and  up  to  tlie  day  of  our  visit  the  average 
was  a  pound  of  butter  from  23  pounds  of  milk.  The 
factory  is  a  new  one,  costing  about  one  thousand  dol- 
lars 

PLAX    FOE    A    LARGE    CREAMERY. 

Factories  on  the  pool  system  are  arranged  in  different 
ways,  but  one  of  the  most  complete  and  convenient  is 
shown  in  the  accompanying  figure.  The  plan  was  drawn 
on  a  large  scale  by  H.  Cooley  Greene,  Esq.,  of  Penn- 
sylvania, and  was  used  in  the  illustration  of  his  address 
before  the  American  Dairymen's  Association  in  1872.  In 
the  cut.  Fig.  31,  the  size  is  very  much  reduced,  but  will 
be  readily  understood  IVom  the  description  of  the  parts. 
Upright,  40x60  feet  ;  wings,  each  24x40  ;  ground  des- 
cends toward  the  right  and  rear  ;  A  A  receiving  room, 
3|-  feet  above  the  floor  of  main  building  ;  P  P  P  pool  in 
three  apartments,  separated  by  3-inch  plank,  which  are 
tied  by  a  cross  plank  10  inches  wide.  The  milk  room 
opens  by  sliding  doors  to  the  vat  room,  VR  which  is 
open  to  press-room  and  churn-room,  C.  B  is  walking 
beam  with  arms  for  attaching  16  churns,  moti\  e  power 
in  engine  house.  E  D  is  curing  room  for  new  made 
cheese  ;  S  store-room  ;  O  office  ;  W  Avash-room  ;  5, 
sink  on  casters  ;  V  veranda,  Avith  pail  racks  ;  p  p  steam 
jets  for  scalding  pails,  churns,  tfcc.  ;  1 1  Mater  tanks, 
lower  one  for  cold  and  npper  one  for  hot  Avater,  with 
faucets  in  either  roon\  ;  T  trap  for  elevating  bntter  from 
cellar,  Avhich  is  under  left  Aving  ;  a  a  a  are  traps  to  drains 
for  slops  ;  I  is  drain  for  Avheyand  buttermilk.  All  liquids 
carried  beneath  the  floor.  O  P  open  platform  for  airing 
churns,  &q.  Second  floor  devoted  to  curing-rooms,  sep- 
arated by  rolling  doors  at  each  side. 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


115 


THE    CREAM    VAT. 

Among  the  new  features  of  this  factory  is  the  cream 
vat.  It  is  constructed  on  the  same  principle  as  the  re- 
gular cheese  vat,  and  hokls  about  200  gallons.     Into  this 

the  cream  is  poured, 
thoroughly  mixed  and 
warmed  or  cooled,  as 
required,  by  the  steam 
and  water  connec- 
tions. In  describing 
the  advantage  of  this 
vat  Mr.  Greene  says : 
"  The  process  of  skim- 
ming  milk    at    most 


creameries  is  this — the  pails  hav- 
ing been  immersed  in  water  with- 
in an  inch  of  the  top  and  about  an 
inch  above  the  milk,  are  lifted  out 
and  set  for  a  short  time  upon 
benches  one  foot  high  at  the  head 
of  the  curd  vats,  where  the  skim- 
is  done.  At  many  cream- 
eries the  benches  are  not  used,  but 
the  skimming  is  done  on  the  floor. 
This  is  needlessly  tiresome. 

The  skimmer  is  a  cup  in  the  form 
of  a  cone,  with  a  flat  handle  simi- 
lar to  an  ordinary  skimmer  handle,  and  contains  nearly 
a  quart.  It  is  immersed  in  the  milk,  the  cream  flowing 
into  it,  and  is  thus  dipped  oflT.  This  operation  is  repeated 
till  there  is  no  cream  seen  upon  the  surface  of  the  milk. 


IIG 


V/ILLARDS   PRACTICAL 


Tlio  j^rocess  is,  of  course,  somewliat  imperfect,  as 
there  is  some  milk  taken  witli  the  cream.  Tlie  milk 
is  now  turned  into  tlie  vat  for  curds,  and  the  pails  are 
carried  to  the  wash-room.  The  cream  is  poured  into 
the  cream  vat  through  a  strainer  of  finely-perforated 
tin,  which  not  only  thoroughly  mixes  it,  but  separates 
from  it  any  flies  or  other  foreign  substances  which  one 
Avouid  not  like  to  see  in  his  butter.  In  this  vat  the  cream 
remains  till  next  day,  when  it  is  churned.  Meantime,  if 
the  weather  be  cold,  steam  is  applied  to  slowly  warm  the 
cream.  If  the  weather  be  very  warm,  it  is  surrounded 
with  cold  water,  that  it  may  neither  become  too  Avarni 
nor  too  sour.  It  is  covered  with  a  close-fitting  frame, 
upon  which  is  stretched  a  piece  of  muslin  to  exclude 
dust,  heat  and  flies.  In  most  creameries  cream  is  kept 
in  pails  and  set  into  Avater,  but  in  the  absence  of  the 
cream-vat  there  is  no  adequate  means  for  warming  the 
cream  when  too  cold. 

Its  advantages  are : — First,  Cheapness.  It  costs  less 
than  pails  of  the  same  capacity.  Second,  Economy  of 
labor  and  time  in  handling  cream.  Third,  It  enables  one 
to  control  the  temperature  of  his  cream  more  perfectly, 
and  to  give  it  uniformity  of  character.  Fourth,  It  admits 
of  straining  the  cream  conveniently,  while  sweet  and 
thin,  and  keeping  it  neatly  thereafter." 

VENTILATED    CARRYING    CANS. 

There  are  quite  a  number  of  patterns  of  carrying  cans, 
all  very  similar  in  construction  to  that  made  by  the  Iron 
Clad  Can  Co.,  New  York  City,  which  is  one  of  the  strong- 
est and  best  in  use. 

Milk  cans  should  have  a  ventilating  cover.  One  of  the 
best  arrangements  of  the  kind  is  a  recent  invention  by 
Messrs.  Dunlap  &  Bissowett,  of  Jericho,  Yt.  It  con- 
sists in  a  ventilating  chamber,  on  the  under-side  of  the 
can  cover,  about  4  inches  in  diameter  and  2^  inches  deep, 
and  liaving  a  gauze  wire  cover  Avhich  can  easily  be  re- 
moved for  cleaning,  &c.  In  the  center  of  the  chamber  is 
the  tube  passing  through  the  cover.  Holes  are  cut  on 
the  rim  of  the  chamber.  By  this  arrangement  the  ven- 
tilation of  the  milk  is  secured  while  being  carted  from  the 
farm  to  the  factory,  and  all  slopping  avoided. 

Wickoff's  Yentilated  Milk    Can   is  furnished   by 


BUTTER     BOOK.  "  \\^ 

Whitman  &  Burrell,  Little  Falls,  N,  Y.  The  nature 
of  this  iniprovenient  consists  in  the  construction  of  the 
can  with  a  cover,  that  will  allow  the  free  escape  of  the 
lieat  and  animal  odor 
of  the  milk,  while  the 
slopi)ing  and  injurious 
agitation  are  prevent- 
ed ;  which  is  attained 
by  the  formation  of 
one  or  more  air-cham- 
bers and  vent  in  the 
cover.  The  operation 
is  as  follows :  If  the 
can  is  filled,  or  supplied 
with  milk,  say  to  dot- 
ted line  I,  the  air  in  the 
chamber  H  becomes 
conipressed,  and  this 
prevents  the  cover  from 
sinking,  and  also  pre- 
Aents  the  milk  from  in- 
jurious agitation  in  its 
transit  from  the  yard 
to  the  point  of  delivery; 
and  the  ventE  admits  of  the  free  escape  of  heat  and  animal 
odor,  wliile  the  slopping  of  milk  is  prevented  during  its 
transit  in  the  can. 

SCALES. 

The  most  convenient  fac- 
tory scales  are  those  recently 
invented  by  Edward  F. 
Jones,  of  the  Jones  Scale 
Works,  Binghamton,  N.  Y. 
By  an  ingenious  arranpement 
of  tlie  revolving  bars  and 
slides,  the  milk  of  several 
J  patrons  can  be  weighed  with- 
=1^  out  dumping  the  niilk  at  each 
weighing.  These  scales  are 
very  accurate,  substantial, 
and  not  liable  to  get  out  of 
ordei-.  Tlie  cut.  Fig.  38,  gives 
an  illustration  of  one. 


FIG.   33. 


118 


WILLARD  S    PRACTICAIi 


MEANS    EMPLOYED    FOR    UETECTIXG    DILUTED    MILK. 

The  most  uiiplGasant  feature  of  the  factory  system  ap- 
pears when  dishonest  patrons  attempt  to  rob  the  associa- 
tion by  the  delivery  of  watered  milk.  The  laws  of  New 
York  are  very  severe  on  i)ersons  found  guilty  of  this  mis- 
demeanor, punishing  thenx  with  heavy  lines  and  imprison- 
ja?nt.  Tlie  factory  manager  keeps  watch  over  the  milk 
as  it  is  delivered,  setting  aside  small  quantities  from  time 
to  time  for  observation  and  experiment  with  the  hydro- 
meter. Each  factory  is  also  provided  with  a  set  of  small 
glass  tubes,  upon  which  numbers  corresponding  with 
the  names  of  the  patrons  are  pasted,  As  milk  is  de- 
livered,   a    small    sample    is    placed    in     the     different 

tubes  corresponding 
with  the  name  of  the 
patron,  and  set  aside. 
If  the  milk  is  not  all 
right,  the  hydrometer 
and  these  samples  give 
warning  ;  the  milk  is 
then  subjected  to  a 
more  cai-eful  test,  by 
the  use  of  the  cream 
gauges  and  per  cent, 
glass. 

Although  there  may 
1)6  considerable  Aaria- 
tion  in  the  specific 
gravity  of  milk  from 
different  cows,  it  has 
been  found  that  when 
the  milk  of  several 
cows  is  mingled  to- 
gether, and  when  the 
milk  of  different  herds 
of  a  neigliborhood  is  compared,  there  is  but  little  differ- 
ence in  the  specific  gravity  of  the  several  samples. 

These  tests  have  been  effectual  in  bringing  offenders 
to  justice,  and  with  the  very  strict  law  on  the  subject,  but 
little  trouble  is  now  had  on  account  of  adulterated  milk. 


Wl 


lere 


BOILER    AXD    EXGIXE. 

considerable    quantities  of 


cream    arc  to  be 


BUTTED.    i:00K. 


119 


churned  and  the  skimmed  milk  is  to  be  manufiictiired 
into  skim-cheese,  a  boiler  and  engine  will  be  found 
most  convenient  and  in  the  end  the  cheapest.  We  give 
in  the  cuts  Kos.  33,  34,  35,  36  and  37,  illustrations  of 
several  of  these  which  have  been  approved  and  are  in 
use  at  the  butter  factories. 

In  Fig.  33  on  page  118,  we  have  a  representation  of 
boiler  and  engine  manufactured  by  Jones,  Faulknek  & 
Co.,  Utica,  N.  Y.,  which  is  largely  in  use. 


Fig.  34. 

THE    IRON    SLAVE. 

In    Fig.    34    WG  have  a  cut    of  the    portable    steam 


120 


WILLAHD  S    PRACTICAL 


boiler  and  engine  furnished  ])v  Chas.    Millak  &  Son, 
Utica,  X.  Y. 

ANOTHER      PORTABLE     BOILER. 


Fig.  o5. 


11.  H.  KoE  &  Co.,  of  Madison,  Ohio,  furnish  a  hori- 
zontal return  flue  tubular  boiler  which  is  shown  in  Fig. 
Ho. 

The  r-anie  House  also  furnish  engines  adapted  to  lliese 
boilers. 


eutteh  book. 


121 


TIIi:    EAGLE    l.TEAMEU    AND    CALDKOX. 

This   appai-atiis    is    niamifactured    by    E.   E.    Sill,  of 


Rochester,  X.  Y.. 
caldron  combined. 


and  is  a  steam  generator  and  jacketed 
It  can  be  employed  both  as   a  gen- 


no.  3n. 

erator  of  steam  and  an  open  caldron  at  the  same  time, 
or  as  a  generator  or  caldron,  and  no  detachment  of  parts 
is  required  to  change  from  one  to  the  other.  This  apr 
paratus  is  designed  especially  for  cooking  food  for  stock, 
and  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  purpose.  The  cut,  Fig. 
36,  shows  its  general  form. 

THE    AXDEKSON    BOILER. 

WHiTAfAx-  L'j  BuRRELL,    of   Little    Falls,  ^N".   Y.,  are 


122 


WILLARD'S    PRACTICAL 


manufacturers  of  Anderson's  Patent  Boiler  and  Tanks 
which  they  have  introduced  hirgely  in  factories  and 
farm  dairies.  They  furnish  in  connection  with  it,  Kipp's 
new  engines ;  the  boiler  and  engine  are  rej^resented  in 
Fig.  37. 


Fig.  37: 
PLAX   FOR   A   BUTTER  FACTORY   OR  CHEESE   FACTORY 
COMBINED. 

In  concluding  our  remarks  on  creameries  where  deep 
setting  is  practiced  we  introduce  the  subjoined  cut,  Fig. 
38,  sliowing  ground  plan  of  a  butter  factory  erected  by 
Gardner  B.  Weeks,  of  Syracuse,  N.  Y.  Referring  to 
the  ground  plan,  Fig.  38,  it  will  be  seen  that  in  the  ar- 
rangement the  factory  is  quite  as  well  adapted  to  cheese 
making  alone,  as  to  butter  and  skim-cheese  manufacture. 
The  advantage  of  sucli  an  arrangement  is  that  the  factory 
may  be  turned  at  once  to  the  making  of  whole-milk 
cheese  or  to  butter  and  skim-cheese,  as  one  or  the  other 
system  may  happen  to  be  most  profitable. 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


123 


The  ground  plan  explains  itself  and  needs  no  descrip- 
tion. The  upper  story  of  the  factory  is  for  a  cheese- 
curing  room  and  may  be  divided  off  for  other  purposes 
as  well  if  desired.  It  is  regarded  by  many  as  a  con- 
venient butter  factory  as  adapted  to  the  "  pail  and  pool 
system." 


^^ciifma.iriimoiti 


?IG.  38. 


124 


WILL  ARC'S    PilACTICAL 


CREAMERY  PRACTICE-LiRGE  PA^TS  SYSTEM. 


For  farm  dairies  where  cold  spring  water  is  convenient 
and  plentiful,  where  only  cheap  dairy  structures  can  be 
afforded,  the  large  pan  system  presents  many  advantages. 
The  pans,  as  is  well  known,  are  each  made  of  a  suitable 
size  to  take  the  entire  mess  of  milk  of  the  dairy  at  one 
milkino-.  Avhether  the  number  of  cows  be  5,  or  100,  and 
four  pans  complete  the  set  or  all  that  will  be  required  to 
hold  the  milk  until  it  is  36  hours  old.  It  is  claimed  by 
some  that  if  tlie  temperature  of  the  milk  be  kept  at 
about  60  deg.  Fahr.  that  the  atmosphere  of  the  milk- 
room  may  be  allowed  to  go  several  degrees  above  that 
temperature  without  injury,  and  indeed,  with  advantage 
in  the  rising  of  the  cream.  Be  this  as  it  may,  much 
better  results  are  obtained  in  an  ordinary  milk-room  by 
setting  the  milk  in  large  pans  surrounded  with  cold  water 
than  by  the  old  plan  in  small  pans  standing  in  the  open 
air. 

In  Franklin  County,  X.  Y.,  where  the  large  pan  sys- 
tem has  been  largely  introduced  for  factories,  the  aver- 
aije  quantity  of  milk  required  for  a  pound  of  butter, 
taking  the  season  together,  has  been  from  20f  to  25^ 
pounds.  Thus  the  Keeler  factory  of  Franklin  County  re- 
ported in  1871  a  pound  of  butter  from  20  VO-100  of  milk; 
the  Union  factory,  a  pound  of  butter  from  244  pounds  of 
milk;  the  Cold  Spring,  a  pound  of  butter  from  22.31 
pounds  milk;  the  Berry,  25.10  pounds;  Moria,  23.12; 
and  the  Bailey  Spring  22.55  pounds  of  milk  for  a  pounds 
of  butter.  In  1872  a  pound  of  butter  was  made  at  the 
Union,  from  23.3  pounds  milk;  Barley  Spring,  22.61 
pounds;  Beny,  24.26  pounds;  Moria,  22.37  pound. 
In  1873  the  quantity  required  for  a  pound  of  butter 
was  at  the  Union,  23.9  pounds  milk;  Barley  Spring, 
24.28  ;  Cold  Spring,  22.47.  These  are  generally 
better  averages  than  are  made  under  the  process  of  the 
"  pail  ancl  pool,"  but  it  must  be  remarked  that  under  the 
latter  plan  it  is  not  desired  to  take  all  the  butter  from 


BUTTER  BOOK.  125 

the  milk,  as  the  skimmed  milk  is  to  be  turned  into  skim- 
med cheese.  But  where  the  hirge  pan  system  is  prac- 
ticed the  skimmed  milk  is  usually  employed  for  feeding  do- 
mestic animals,  and  all  the  butter  is  taken  out  that  can  be. 
The  first  invention  of  the  large  pans  was  made  by  the 
late  Dr.  Jennings,  of  Fredonia,  N.  Y.,  and  consisted 
simply  of  a  shallow  vat  of  tin  placed  in  a  wooden  vat 
with  space  between  the  two  for  the  reception  of  cold 
water.  I  tested  this  pan  on  its  first  introduction,  and 
from  experiments,  then  made  was  highly  pleased  with 
the  principle.  Various  improvements  have  been  jnade 
in  the  construction  of  the  pans  so  as  to  make  them 
more  efficient  and  convenient,  and  I  give  illustrations 
of  some  of  the  most  approved  patterns  now  before  the 
public.  Usually,  one  surface  foot  of  pan  bottom  will  be 
sufficient  for  two  cows ;  so  that  any  one  may  calculate 
pretty  accurately  what  will  be  needed  for  his  dairy.  The 
sides  of  the  pan  are  about  five  inches  high.  The  way  to 
use  them  is  to  put  one  milking  of  the  entire  dairy  into 
one  pan,  adjusting  the  faucet  in  the  supply  pipe  so  as  to 
use  just  water  enough  to  extract  the  animal  heat  from 
the  milk,  and  keep  it  at  the  desired  temperature  while 
the  cream  is  rising — say  from  60  to  62  deg.  At  the  time 
the  fourth  pan  is  wanted  for  use,  the  first  will  be  ready 
to  skim ;  then  stop  the  water  from  running  into  the  pan 
that  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  may  run  out  while 
the  milk  is  skimmed,  and  run  off  to  enable  the  milk-maid 
to  clean  the  pan. 

THE    JEWETT    PAN. 

As  given  in  the  engraving,  Fig.  39,  one  of  the  series 
of  pans,  is  represented  as  broken  away  to  show  the  in- 
ternal arrangement.  These  pans  are  provided  with  a 
space,  between  their  top  and  bottom  walls.  Within 
this  space  are  a  number  of  compartments  communica- 
ting with  each  other  at  alternate  ends,  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  form  one  continuous  channel,  zigzag  in  its 
course,  having  an  inlet  at  through  which  warm  or 
cold  water,  as  needed,  is  received  ;  such  water,  after 
flowing  through  the  tortuous  channel  formed  by  the 
partitions,  being  discharged  at  the  outlet.  A  fiiucet  is 
shown  through  which  all  the  water  in  the  channel  can 
be  drawn  off. 


126 


WILLARD'S    PRACTICAL 


Wlien  the  cream  lias  raised  and  has  been  skimmed,  the 
milk  is  then  run  off  through  the  pipe  cZ,  which  communi- 
cates with  the  main  discharge  pipe,  F,  which  may  be 
placed  under  the  floor  or  not,  as  circumstances  will  per- 

'   ;  or  if  desired  the  milk  can  be  conveyed  in  movable 


mit 


Fig.  39. 
horizontal  pipes  from  the  pans  into  an  adjoining  room  on 
the  same  floor.  The  pipe  seen  attached  to  the  side  of  the 
room  and  above  the  row  of  pans  is  the  source  of  supply 
from  Avhich  water  is  conducted  to  the  base  of  the  pans. 
For  cooling,  the  water  is  received  from  a  spring  or  re- 
servoir ;  but  for  warming,  from  boilers  or  other  appro- 
priate apparatus. 

These  pans  are  manufactured  by  L.  R.  Towxsend,  of 
Malone,  N.  Y. 

THE  ORAXGE  COUNTY  MILK  PAN. 


This  is  manufactured  by  the  Orange  County  JMilk  Pan 
Company,  of  Franklin,  Delaware  County,  and  is   highly 


WILLARDS    PRACTICAL  .^y^ 

approved  by  many.  They  are  ai-i'aiiged  in  four,  single,  or 
two  double  racks,  whichever  best  suit  tlie  size  of  the 
dairy-room.  I  give  a  cut  of  tlie  double  rack  arrange- 
ment in  Fig.  40. 

When  arranged  in  double  racks,  the  upper  pan  is 
reached  by  means  of  a  moveable  platform,  which  is 
kept  under  the  rack,  and  when  wanted  is  drawn  out.  By 
use  of  the  double  rack  a  set  for  thirty  cows  can  be 
used  in  a  room  8x10. 

It  has  an  arrangement  for  cooling  with  ice,  having 
space  at  each  end  of  the  Pan  in  the  \at,  where  ice  may 
be  stored,  and,  as  it  melts,  the  water  passes  off  down 
through  the  Regulator  Pipe. 

COWLES'    MILK    PAN. 

Is  the  invention  of  Seth  F.  Cowles  of  Coventry,  Vt., 
and  furnished  by  W. 
R.  Colby,  of  Stan- 
stead,  Canada.  The 
distinguished  fea- 
ture of  this  arrange- 
ment, see  Fig.  41,  is 
the  manner  in  which 
the  milk  is  removed 
from  the  pan.  It  is 
the  only  pan  that 
empties  over  the  top 
and  thereby  avoids 
the  use  of  corks, 
which  sometimes 
prove  troublesome 
in  getting  sour  and 
allowing  the  milk  to  leak. 

PLAN      OF      BUTTER      FACrORY      OX     THE    LARGE      PAN,     OR 
"  SIIALLOIV     SETTING  "    SYSTEM. 

The  factories  on  the  shallow  setting  system  are  usually 
less  elaborate  than  those  where  pools  and  pails  are  in  use. 
In  Fig.  42  is  an  illustration  of  the  general  features  found 
in  these  establishments.  For  the  milk  of  100  cows  only 
four  pans  would  be  required.  The  pans  occupy  more 
space  than  on  the  pool  system,  but  less  water  is  needed 
to  do  the  same  work. 

The  plan  of  the  factory,  P'ig.  42  will  be  readily  under- 


128 


WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 


Stood.  The  main  Luildinc:  i*  60x30  feet  and  the  winjy 
10x14  feet.  W  is  the  work-room,  14x22  feet,  and  S  the 
sink;  R  is  the  churn-room,  8x14  feet,  and  C  the  chm-n ; 
E  is  the  engine-room,  10x14  feet,  and  B  the  boiler  and 
engine.  Tliere  are  12  pans,  set  op])osite  to  each  otlier, 
six  on  a  side,  which  will  accon\modate  the  milk  of  300 
cows.  The  pans  are  130x57  inches,  and  are  set  not  quite 
two  feet  apart  and  with  one  end  nearly  or  quite  against 
the  wall,  as  represented  in  Fig.  1.     T  is  a  tank  for  sour 


0  X 


2  „  2 

^        Q.        Q.        a        CL        ^ 


=        ^ 


Fig.  42. 
milk;  D  delivery  window.  There  is  a  track  for  a  hand 
car  running  through  the  center  of  the  building  betAveen 
the  pans.  Underneath  the  structure  is  the  butter  cellar. 
In  this  arrangement  there  is  no  provision  for  making 
"skim-cheese,"  though  of  course  when  it  is  desired  the 
building  may  be  extended  in  leugth,  and  thus  room  made 
for  the  manufacturing  department. 

FACTORY    BUTTER    BOX. 

Mr.  Lewis  of  Chenango  Co.,  suggests  that  in  case 
there  is  not  a  very  good  butter  room  in  a  factory,  a  long 
box,  tight  at  the  *^ bottom,  wnth  a  cover  to  it,  should  be 
made.  ^  Place  a  rack  in  the  bottom,  some  three  inches 
from  the  bottom  of  the  box.  Then  in  warm  weather  put 
your  butter  in  the  box,  and  have  water  running  into  one 
end  of  the  box   and  out  of  the  other,  under  the  butter. 


BUTTER    BOOK.  129 

This  will  keep   it  cool   and  liard  until  it  can  be  worked 
and  packed. 

MAKING     PREMIUM     BUTTER     ON     THE     SHALLOW     SETTING 
SYSTEM. 

At  tlie  Central  New  York  Fair,  Utica,  in  1874,  the 
first  preniium  on  creamery  butter  was  awarded  to  the 
Cold  Spring  Creamery,  East  Hamilton,  Madison  County, 
N.  Y.  About  the  middle  of  September  I  visited  the 
Cold  Spring  factory  and  obtained  from  the  manufacturer 
the  process  of  manufacturing  at  this  factory,  where 
shallow  setting  is  practiced  and  it  may  be  of  interest  in 
this  connection.  The  factory  is  a  small  one,  20x30  feet, 
taking  the  milk  of  only  00  cows.  Tliere  are  nine  patrons 
and  milk  is  delivered  morning  and  evening,  the  most  dis- 
tant patron  living  .'ibout  one-half  mile  from  the  factory. 

PLAN  OF  SETTING  THE  MILK* 

The  Jewett  pans  are  used  at  the  Cold  Spring  Creamery. 
The  size  of  the  i)ans  is  11x4  feet,  six  inches  deep,  and 
four  pans  complete  the  set.  The  pans  are  of  the  ordi- 
nary size  for  150  cows,  but  the  manager  of  the  Cold 
Spring  f  ictory  thinks  they  are  none  too  large  for  100  cows. 
The  milk  is  set  four  inches  deep  in  the  |)aiis.. 

The  milk  during  summer  i.->  held  in  the  paub  until  it  is  24 
to  36  hours  old,  and  is  generally  allowed  to  sour.  AVhen 
the  milk  begins  to  lopper  at  the  bottom  and  the  cream  is 
wrinkled  it  is  skinnned.  The  i)ans  stand  with  one  end 
butted  against  the  wall,  and  at  this  end  are  the  pipes  for 
admitting  the  flow  of  water  under  the  milk.  The  te;u- 
])erature  of  the  water  in  the  spring  is  56  degrees,  and  it  is 
desired  to  keep  the  milk  at  about  60  degrees  while  the 
cream  is  rising.  In  the  spring  and  fall,  or  during  cool 
weather,  a  coal  stove  in  the  room  regulates  the  tempera- 
ture so  that  the  milk  stands  veiy  uniformly  at  60  degrees. 

CHURNING. 

The  churning  is  done  every  morning,  Sundays  ex- 
cepted, the  Saturday's  cream  being  churned  Saturday 
night.  The  dash  churn  is  used,  barrel  and  a  half  size,  and 
it  is  operated  by  horse  power.  Mr.  Holmes  think  no 
(5hurn  equal  to  the  dash  for  making  a  nice  grained  butter. 
During  the  hottest  weather  the  cream  in  the  churn  is 
tempered  to   58  deg.,  but   at  the  time  of  our    visit,  the 


130  WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 

l^th  of  September,  the  temperature  of  the  cream  when 
the  churns  are  started  is  60  deg.  About  an  hour  is  oc- 
cupied in  churning  and  when  tlie  butter  begins  to  come 
the  motion  is  deadened  or  made  slower  and  four  quarts  of 
cold  spring  water  are  added  to  each  churn.  Enough  water 
is  added  so  as  to  raise  the  liquid  mass  to  cover  the  dash  to 
prevent  it  striking  the  cream.  Then  just  so  soon  as  the 
butter  is  formed  the  churns  are  detached  from  the  power 
and  the  butter  gathered  by  hand. 

The  buttermilk  is  now  drained  off  and  the  butter  thrown 
into  a  large  tub  with  cold  spring  water,  where  it  is 
washed  by  working  it  gently  with  the  ladle.  Washing 
in  two  waters  thoroughly  expels  the  buttermilk,  when  it 
is  immediately  salted  at  the  rate  of  three-quarters  of  an 
ounce  of  salt  to  the  pound  of  butter. 

THE    SALT    WEIGHER. 

Mr.  Holmes  has  a  very  handy  implement  for  butter 
makers,  which  may  be  denominated  the  "butter  and  salt 
scales."  It  is  simply  a  pair  of  scales  so  arranged  that  by 
placing  the  butter  in  a  bowl  on  a  standard  and  by  adding 
salt  to  the  dish  on  the  end  of  the  scale  yard  until  the 
scales  are  balanced,  you  get  the  exact  quantity  of  salt 
required  for  the  lump  of  butter.  It  is  arranged  so  that 
the  scales  may  be  set  for  salting  at  the  rate  of  from  a 
quarter  ounce  to  1^  ounces  of  salt  to  the  pound  of  but- 
ter. It  is  a  simple  and  cheap  affair,  and  should  be  in  the 
hands  of  every  butter  maker,  as  it  saves  time  and  trouble 
in  weighing  and  calculating  the  amount  of  salt  for  a 
o^iven  weisfht  of  butter. 

The  salt  is  worked  through  the  butter  while  in  the 
washing  tub,  the  ladle  being  used  for  that  purpose,  when 
the  butter  is  removed  to  the  cooling  vat  or  where  the 
vessel  holding  it  may  be  surrounded  with  cold  spring 
water  and  it  remains  tliere  until  next  morning,  when  it  is 
thrown  upon  the  butter  worker  and  worked  over  and  then 
goes  to  the  packages.  The  butter  is  put  up  in  Wescott 
return  butter  pails  and  goes  to  New  York  City,  and  the 
price  received  at  the  factory  is  two  cents  less  per  pound 
than  the  highest  quotations  for  fancy  butter  in  that  city. 

BUTTER    FROM    A    GIYEX  QUANTITY  OF    MILK. 

During  the  summer,  under  this  system  as  above  des- 
cribed, 100  pounds  of  milk  yield  four  pounds  of  butter; 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


131 


but  as  the  season  advances  a  pound  of  butter  is  obtained 
from  a  less  quantity  of  milk.  At  the  time  of  our  visit 
the  ratio  was  one  pound  of  butter  from  23  of  milk. 

CRKAMEKY    KEPOETS. 

The  following  reports  from  creameries-  where  skim- 
cheese  is  made  in  connection  with  butter  manufacture, 
and  where  only  butter  is  made  will  be  of  interest  in  this 
connection.  These  reports  show  the  advantages  of  the 
respective  systems: 

HEPORT  op  1873  AND  1873.  — BUTTER  AND  SKIM-CHEESE. 


Creameries. 


!      1 


1872 -Edmeston, Otsego  Co-.N.Y. 

Crvstal.  New  Bremen.  Lewis 
C.>..N.Y •• 

AV.W.&A.  D.Vorce,  DenniarK, 
Lewis  Co..  N.  Y 

Copeiihafreii.  Lewis  to,,  N.Y. 

West  Miirtinaburfi,    *' 

E.  G.  Dodpo.  Miirtinsb'gh,  ^ 

Lowville,  LowvilU', 

South  Harrisburph, 
1873-Oiiennta,  N.  Y •••;:••• 

Avilleof  Conenango,  N.  \... 

Datiin     • „ 


2,392J 

707,' 

705 

623,' 

1,213, 

I  732, 
1,881, 
582, 
57fi, 
2,017, 
.1.562, 


181,528:  55,334  236,862!  $35,089  14' 
68.692'       873'  69,565      8,242  70 


69,583, 
59.900 

125  054 
',5.158 

193,7;W 
f 0.021 
34,784 

167,736 

i;«,329 


1,954 
1,107 

2.75^ 
2.363 
2,912 
1.121 

20,448 
530.004 

26,374 


,537  9 

,007 1  7, 

,7&')'  15, 

,521 !  9. 

,550  24, 

,742  7, 


,09158  12 

.53S87I  12 

.647  58]  12 

,910  761  12 
,337  87 
,916 13 


*3 


< 

10.10 

10.16 

9.87 
10.22 
9.96 
9.45 
9. .7 
9.43 


11  201 


REPORT  OP  1873.— BUTTER. 


STATEMENT  OP  STX  BUTTER  FACTORIES 
USING  THE  LARGE  MiLK  PANS  FOR  THE 
SEASON  OP  1873,  AND  THEIR  POST  OFPICE 
ADDRESS. 


c  «  o 


050  » 

< 


(1  Spn_., 

N.  Y.,  Wni.  ],yttle,  Proprietor. 
Baiiey  Spring  Factory.  Clmtuautrua,  Franklin 

Co.  N.Y.    Ira  Bennett.  Proprietor 

Union  Factrrv.  Banpcor,  Franklin   Co.,  N.  i  ,, 

Stock  Co.    R.  Roice.  Sec'y. 
Belmont  Factory.  Belmont.  Franklin  Co.,  iN. 

Y.    Kirbv  &  Adams.  Proprietors...  ...... • 

Cold  Spring  Kaotorv.  Last  Hamilton.   Marli- 

son  Co..  N.  Y.    Usher  Br..s.,  Proprietors. 
Woodburr.e  Factory,   Wooriburne,   Hnlhvan 

Co.,  N.  Y.    Wm.  Bernard.  Proprietor...  . 

Average  Number ...  


34,011 

27,847 
17,765 


s32 
O 


PQ 


22  47rl00 
24  28-100 

23  6-lCO 
21,142!  22  36-100 

23  6-10 

24  2-5 


11,466 
5,731 


33  53-100 


SOX 

33  27-100 

34 


2.759,68;  118  462 


0-,  750.5.5 
'•"*1184«? 


32 


132 


WILLARD'S   PRACTICAL 


THE     DAKE     SYSTEM     FOK     IMPROVING     FARM     AND     DAIRY 
BUTTER. 

About  eighteen  years  ago  a  plan  for  manufacturing 
cheese  on  a  large  scale  Mas  inaugurated  in  Ohio.  Its 
general  features  were  as  follows : — The  milk  was  con- 
verted into  curds  at  the  farm  dairies  in  the  usual  manner, 
and  then  each  dairyman  took  the  fresh  curds  daily  to  a 
central  factory,  where  the\-  were  weighed  and  credited  at 
a  certain  rate  per  pound.  The  central  iactory  then  min- 
gled the  diflerent  curds  together,  salting  and  pressing 
them  into  cheese  of  uniform  size  and  weight,  when  they 
went  to  the  curing  room,  and  from  thence  to  the  markets. 
This  plan  was  adopted  previous  to  the  establishment  of 
our  present  factory  system,  and  high  hopes  were  enter- 
tained as  to  the  ultimate  success  of  the  movement.  The 
practical  Avorking,  however,  ])roved  defective.  The  curds 
furnished  by  the  different  dairymen  were  not  alike,  but 
varied  in  texture  and  quality,  some  being  too  soft,  others 
too  hard  scalded,  to  say  nothing  of  those  more  or  less  sour 
and  otherwise  imperfect.  Under  these  conditions  the  fer- 
mentation of  the  cheese  during  the  curing  process  was 
not  uniform  through  the  mass,  and  the  result  of 
the  whole  procedure  was  that  an  inferior  product  was 
turned  out,  which  of  course  went  at  low  price.  Mean- 
while the  present  factory  system  began  to  spread 
throughout  New  York  and  to  take  root  in  Ohio,  and  the 
manufacture  of  cheese  from  curds  collected  together,  as 
referred  to,  was  abandoned  for  the  more  rational  plan  of 
that  now  in  general  use. 

A  somewhat  similar  plan  to  the  above  has  been  recently 
inagurated  in  Wisconsin  and  other  parts  of  the  West  for 
the  manufacture  of  butter.  The  milk  is  set  for  cream  at 
the  farm  dairies,  and  after  being  churned  is  taken  to  the 
factory,  where  it  is  weighed  and  each  mess  properly  cred- 
ited at  a  certain  price  per  pound,  and  the  different  parcels 
are  then  mingled  together,  to  go  through  the  sevei\al 
manipulations  of  working,  salting  and  packing. 

THE     DAKE     PROCESS. 

The  originator  of  this  system  is  Daniel  W.  Dake  of 
Belolt,  Wis.,  and  his  butter  factory  and  its  machinery  are 
I'epresented  to  be  entirely  different  from  anything  hereto- 
fore  known   in  this   line  of  the  dairy.     As  soon   as  the 


BUTTER    BOOK.  ]  33 

butter  arrives  fresh  from  tlie  farmers'  churns,  four  or  five 
hundred  to  one  thousand  pounds  are  put  in  a  vat,  which 
is  about  eight  feet  long  by  two  feet  broad  and  eight 
inches  deep.  Here  the  butter  is  cut  with  a  wooden  hidle 
into  small  pieces,  and  moderately  cold  water  poured  over 
the  mass  until  covered.  A  wooden  hoe  is  then  taken 
and  the  butter  hoed  from  one  end  of  the  vat  to  the  other 
twice,  by  which  time  the  water  has  tempered  it  to  a  con- 
sistency for  easy  working  through  the  machines.  These 
machines  are  described  in  the  Milwaukee  Journal  of 
Commerce  as  follows: 

The  first  machine  used  is  simply  a  wire  screen  covering 
the  bottom  of  a  hopper,  and  through  which  the  butter 
is  rapidly  forced  by  a  hand  lever  or  crank.  A  thousand 
pounds  of  butter  can  be  run  through  this  nuichine  in  from 
three  to  four  minutes,  and  it  comes  out  of  an  exact  con- 
sistency— hard  lumps  all  cut  up  and  thoroughly  prepared 
for  the  next  process.  If  the  butter  is  white,  as  in  win- 
ter, it  is  given  a  little  color,  then  salted,  and  afterwards 
})ut  twice  through  machine  luimber  two.  This  second 
machine  thoroughly  and  evenly  distributes  the  salt  and 
the  color,  if  any  is  used,  and  at  the  same  time  extracts 
all  the  brine  and  buttermilk.  By  this  process  it  is  said 
that  two  men  can  prepare,  handle,  salt,  color  and  pack 
away  in  tubs  from  three  to  five  thousand  pounds  per  day. 
Again,  it  is  claimed  that  the  butter  ])repared  comes  out 
imiform  in  color  and  texture,  although  it  is  made  from 
the  cream  of  fifty  different  herds  and  on  as  many  differ- 
ent farms.  And  it  is  claimed  that  Eastern  butter  dealers 
who  have  handled  the  Dake  butter  for  an  entire  season, 
speak  of  it  as  a  decided  improvement  over  farm  dairy 
butter  as  usually  made  at  the  West. 


rHILOSOPHY  OF  BUTTEll  MAKIX!}  AXD  BUTTER  KEEPIXG. 


CAUSES    THAT    DELAY    BUTTER    FROM    COMING. 

Difficulty  is  sometimes  experienced  late  in  the  fall  on 
account  of  the  churning  occupying  an  unreasonable  time. 
Some  of  the  causes  which  delay  the  butter  from   coming 


134  WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 

are  as  follows  :  The  milk  nijiy  have  been  kept  at  un- 
even temperatures  and  the  cream  may  have  been  held  too 
long  from  souring.  Sour  and  sweet  cream  may  have 
been  mixed  and  not  properly  stirred  so  as  to  be  of  the 
same  condition  as  to  acidity  throughout. 

The  cream  from  farrow  cows  may  have  been  mixed  with 
cream  from  tliose  that  are  not  farrow.  The  milk  may 
have  stood  too  long  before  skimming.  The  cream  may 
not  have  been  sufficiently  warmed,  or  the  cows  may  have 
lacked  salt  while  being  fed  on  diy  food.  One  or  more 
cows  may  have  been  indisposed  and  the  milk  in  conse- 
quence be  imperfect  or  feverish.  Some  of  the  coavs  may  be 
near  the  point  of  drying  off  and  the  milk  is  not  good,  and 
should  not  have  been  saved,  and  especially  should  not 
have  been  a^Jded  to  the  milk  of  others  which  is  good. 
Poor  keep,  neglect  and  cruel  treatment  of  cows  also  have 
their  influence  on  the  quality  of  cream  and  affect  its 
churning. 

In  the  first  place  milk,  when  set  aside  for  cream,  should 
be  kept  at  a  pretty  uniform  temperature,  say  at  about  60 
deg.  Fahr.  It  milk  be  constantly  changing  from  one 
temperature  to  another,  according  to  the  variable  change 
of  the  atmosphere,  or  if  cream  be  raised  on  one  portion 
of  the  milk  at  one  temperature  and  on  another  portion  of 
the  milk  at  a  difterent  temperature,  the  churning  is  liable 
to  be  more  or  less  affected.  Again,  the  temperature  of 
the  cream,  when  it  goes  to  the  churn,  should  be  ]-egulated 
by  an  accurate  thermometer,  say  at  about  58  deg.  to  60 
deg.  Fahr.  It  is  important  to  have  an  accurate  ther- 
mometer. Some  instruments  are  worthless  on  account  of 
imperfect  graduation.  I  liave  seen  thermometers 
hanging  side  by  side  in  the  same  temperature  showing  a 
variation  of  from  8  deg.  to  10  deg.  It  is  needless,  per- 
liaps,  to  say  that  a  thermometer  varying  10  deg.  from 
the  true  graduation  would  be  likely  to  cause  trouble  in 
churning,  it  the  cream  was  tempered  according  to  the 
instrument,  because  cream  that  goes  to  the  churn  too 
cold  or  too  hot  will  not  readily  be  converted  into  butter  ; 
and  when  the  butter  does  come  it  will,  from  too  long 
churning,  be  of  inferior  quality.  Again,  if  cream  is  al- 
lowed to  get  too  sour  there  is  liable  to  be  trouble  in 
churning.  If  the  cream  be  taken  oft' from  milk  at  difterent 
times,  or  several  messes  added  together  to  make  a  churn- 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


135 


ing,  tlie  cream  slioulcl  be  well  stirred  in  tlie  cream  pot  at 
every  addition,  in  order  to  mingle  the  messes  thoroughly. 
Then,  when  the  mass  has  acquired  a  slight  acid  condition, 
it  should  go  to  the  churn. 

Cream  is  sometimes  refractory  in  churning  on  account 
of  the  bad  condition  of  water  with  Avhich  the  cows  are 
supplied.  This  is  apt  to  occur  in  hot  weather,  when 
w^ater  is  scanty  and  cows  are  compelled  to  slake  thirst 
from  stagnant  pools  or  from  sloughs  and  mud  holes,  where 
the  water  is  filthy.  I  have  known  cases  to  occur 
where  great  difficulty  was  had  in  making  butter  on  ac- 
count of  bad  water,  but  wliich  was  removed  by  changing 
the  pasture  or  giving  them  a  range  where  good,  sweet  run- 
ning water  Avas  obtained.  In  one  instance  coming  under 
my  observation,  there  was  great  trouble  in  churning 
during  hot  weather,  while  the  cows  were  drinking  from 
filthy  pools  ;  but  on  the  dairyman's  sinking  a  well  and 
pumping  water  for  his  herd  the  trouble  ceased  altoge- 
ther. In  order  to  test  the  matter  and  sec  if  the  bad  water 
was  the  cause  of  the  difficulty,  he  withheld  the  well  water 
from  liis  cows,  and  the  trouble  with  the  cream  returned. 

I  liave  seen  cases  where  the  cream  would  not  readily 
churn  when  the  cows  were  raced  from  the  pasture  and 
overdriven  by  dogs  during  hot  weather.  The  milk  at 
such  times  becomes  feverish,  and  the  cream  undergoes  a 
change  which  is  prejudicial  to  the  butter  forming  pro- 
perly. If  attention  is  given  to  the  kind  treatment  of  cows, 
if  tliey  have  an  abundance  of  nutritious  feed,  plenty  of 
good,  clean  water,  regularly  salted,  and  the  milk  kept  at 
a  uniform  temperatui-e  of  about  60  deg.  while  the  cream 
is  rising — in  fine,  if  the  cream  goes  to  the  churn  at  the 
right  temperature,  the  butter  ought  to  come  in  the  chum 
in  from  thirty  to  forty-five  minutes,  according  as 
the  floats  are  rotated.  We  do  not  believe  in  very  quick 
churning — from  a  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  hour  is  soon 
enouGjh  for  the  makinjx  of  extra  fine  butter. 


CHURXIXG    THE    MILK. 


It  is  claimed  by  some,  that  churning  the  whole  milk 
makes  more  and  better  butter  than  to  set  the  milk  and 
churn  the  cream.  A  good  many  experiments  have  been 
made  in  Germany,  to  test  this  qiiestion,  and  Petersen- 
says  if  the  process  bo  properly  conducted,  butter  made 


136  WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 

by  churning  the  whole  milk  is  of  infinitely  finer  flavor 
than  that  made  from  churning  cream  alone,  and  this  he 
affirms  is  the  universal  verdict  whenever  both  systems 
have  met  with  fair  trial.  He  gives  the  average  amount 
of  milk  required  to  make  a  pound  of  butter  by  both  svs- 
tems,  thus  showing  that  when  the  cream  is  churned  alone 
it  takes  from  16  to  17  litres  of  milk  to  make  a  pound  of 
butter,  but  when  the  whole  milk  is  churned  about  14 
litres  is  suffiicient.     A  litre  is  a  little  over  If  pints. 

In  1869,  Mr.  James  Zoller  of  Oswegatchie,  X.  Y., 
was  requested  by  a  committee  of  the  New  York  State 
Agricultural  Society,  to  make  experiments  to  test  the 
quantity  of  milk  required  to  make  a  pound  of  butter 
when  only  the  cream  Avas  cliurned,  as  compared  with  the 
whole  milk  churning,  and  he  gave  as  the  result,  the  fol- 
lowing:  When  the  milk  was  strained  in  pans  and  the 
cream  churned,  208  quarts  of  milk  yielded  17^  pounds  of 
butter  ready  for  packing,  and  when  the  whole  milk  was 
churned  the  same  quantity  of  milk  made  19^  pounds  of 
butter  ready  for  packing,  being  a  gain  of  about  10  per 
cent,  over  churning  the  cream.  The  milk  was  allowed  to 
sour  but  not  loppered  Avhen  it  was  churned.  A  tempera- 
ture of  about  65  degrees  is  said  to  be  the  best  for  churn- 
ing whole  milk  if  sweet,  but  the  usual  temperature  em- 
ployed is  lower,  from  60  to  63  degrees  Fahr. 

In  the  Dutch  process  the  milk  is  put  into  deep  jars  in 
a  cool  place,  each  mess  or  portion  milked  at  one  time 
being  kept  separate.  As  soon  as  there  is  the  least  ap- 
pearance of  acidity,  the  Avhole  is  placed  in  an  upright 
churn  to  be  churned.  When  the  butter  begins  to 
form  in  small  kernels,  the  contents  of  the  churn  are  emp- 
tied into  a  sieve  that  lets  the  buttermilk  pass  through ;  the 
butter  is  then  formed  into  a  mass.  In  the  Scotch  method 
the  milk  is  allowed  to  stand  undisturbed  until  it  has 
soured  and  become  loppered,  and  when  it  has  arrived  at 
this  state  it  is  fit  to  be  churned.  It  is  put  in  the  churn 
and  agitated  a  few  minutes  merely  to  break  the  coagulum, 
and  is  then  brought  to  a  temperature  of  about  70  degrees 
and  churned.  In  some  sections  tbe  milk  is  churned  sweet, 
either  a  few  hours  after  milking,  or  the  night's  and 
morning's  mess  of  milk  mingled  together  and  churned  in 
the  afternoon.     It   is  so  much   more  work  to  churn  the 


BUTTER    BOOK.  .  ];37 

milk   than    the    cream   tliat   whole  milk  ehiiruing  is  not 
very  widely  practiced. 

THE  BEST  TEMPERATURE  FOR  CHURNII^G  CREA.M 

Is  from  55  degrees  to  60  degrees  Fahr.  Some  years 
ago  a  series  of  carefully  conducted  experiments  Avere 
made  in  Scotland,  to  determine  the  temperature  hest 
adapted  for  making  butter,  the  cream  being  churned  at 
various  temperatures,  ranging  from  57  to  70  degrees. 
When  the  ci-eam  was  churned  at  57  degrees  and  not 
higher  than  60  degrees,  the  butter  was  of  the  very  best 
quality,  rich,  firm  and  Avell  tasted.  From  62  degrees  to 
70  degrees  the  butter  was  more  soft  and  spongy,  and  at 
the  highest  temperature  it  was  decidedly  inferior  in  every 
respect  to  butter  made  in  churning  at  the  lower  tempera- 
tures. The  experimenters  thence  concluded  that  the  best 
temperature  to  commence  the  operation  of  churning  is 
about  55  degrees,  and  at  no  time  in  the  operation  ought 
it  to  exceed  65  degrees,  while  on  the  contrary  if  at  any 
time  the  cream  should  be  under  50  degrees,  the  labor 
will  be  much  increased  w^ithout  any  proportionate  advan- 
tage being  obtained.  This  agrees  with  the  American 
practice,  "it  must  be  observed  however  that 

THE    AGITATION    OF   THE    CREAM    IN    CHURNING 

should  be  regular,  neither  too  quick  nor  too  slow.  If  the 
agitation  is  too  quick  the  butter  will  make  and  unmake 
ittelf  before  the  churner  is  aware  of  it,  as  too  rapid 
motion  induces  fermentation,  Avhich,  when  it  has  reached 
a  certain  point,  is  entirely  destructive  of  anything  like 
the  possibility  of  making  even  moderately  good  or  well- 
tasted  butter.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  motion  be  too 
slow,  the  agitators  in  the  churn  fail  to  produce  the  de- 
sired separation  of  the  component  parts  of  the  cream, 
and  the  consequence  is  that  after  a  good  deal  of  time 
spent  in  lazy  action,  the  churner  is  just  as  far  from  his 
butter  as  he  was  at  the  beginning  of  his  labors. 

AVUAT     SHOULD     BE     THE     APPEARANCE     OF    THE     BUTTER. 

It  has  been  well  remarked  by  Mr.  Stephens  that  when 
butter  is  properly  churned,  both  as  to  time  and  tempera- 
ture, it  becomes  firm  with  very  little  working,  and  is 
tenacious,  but  its  most  desirable  state  is  that  of  waxy, 
when  it  is  easily  molded  in  any  shape,  and  may  be  drawn 


138 


WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 


out  a  considerable  length  without  breaking.  It  is  only 
in  this  state  that  butter  possesses  that  rich,  nutty  flavor 
and  smell  which  impart  so  liigli  a  degree  of  pleasure  in 
eating  it  and  which  enhances  its  value  manifold. 

It  is  not  always  necessary  to  taste  butter  in  judging  of 
it;  the  smooth,  unctuous  feel  in  rubbing  a  little  between 
the  finger  and  thumb,  expresses  at  once  its  richness  of 
quality;  the  nutty  smell  indicates  a  similar  taste,  and  the 
bright,  glistening,  cream-colored  surface  shows  its  high 
state  of  cleanliness. 

WASHING    THE    BUTTEK. 

In  the  matter  of  w^ashing  and  salting  butter.  Prof.  S. 
W.  JoHNSOX  of  Sheffield  Scientific  School,  Yale  College, 
lias  made  some  very  useful  i-emarks,  M'hich  we  quote.  He 
says  :  "  To  prepare  butter  for  keeping,  "without  danger  of 
rancidity  and  loss  of  its  agreeable  flavor,  great  pains  is 
needful  to  remove  the  buttermilk  as  completely  as  pos- 
sible. This  is  very  imperfectly  accomplished  by  simply 
Avorking  or  kneading.  As  the  analyses  before  quoted 
show,  salting  removes  but  little  besides  water  and  small 
quantities  of  sugar.  Caseine,  which  appears  to  spoil  the 
butter  for  keeping,  is  scarcely  diminished  by  these  means. 
Washing  w^ith  water  is  indispensable  for  its  removal.  In 
Holland  and  parts  of  Holstein,  it  is  the  custom  to  mix  a 
considerable  amount  of  water  with  the  cream  in  churning. 
The  butter  is  thus  washed  as  it  "  comes."  In  Holland  it 
is  usual  to  wash  the  butter  copiously  Avith  water  besides. 
The  finished  article  is  more  remarkal)le  for  its  keeping 
qualities  than  for  fineness  of  flavor  when  new.  The  Hol- 
stein butter,  which  is  made  without  washing,  has  at  first 
a  more  delicious  aroma,  but  appears  not  to  keep  so  well 
as  washed  butter.  Swedish  butter  made  by  Gussander's 
metliod,  in  which  the  cream  rises  completely  in  24  hom-s, 
the  milk  being  maintained  at  a  temperature  of  60  de- 
grees to  70  degrees  Fahr.  is  when  prepared  without 
water,  the  sweetest  of  all.  If,  however,  it  is  to  be  kept 
a  length  of  time,  it  must  be  thoroughly  washed  before 
salting." 

PHILOSOPHY    OF    SALTING. 

"  Immediately  after  churning  the  mass  consists  of  a  mix- 
ture of  butter,  Avith  more  or  less  cream.  In  case  very 
rich  cream  (from  milk   kept   warm)  is  employed,  as  much 


BUTTER    BOOK.  139 

as  one-third  of  the  mass  may  be  cream.     The  process  of 
working  completes  the  union  of  the  still  unadhering  fat 
globules  and  has,  besides,  the  object  of  removing  the  but- 
termilk as  much  as  jiossihle.     The  buttermilk  —  the  pres- 
ence of  which  is  objectionable  hi  new  butter  by  impairing 
the  taste,  and  which  speedily  occasions  rancidity  in  butter 
that    is   kept — cannot   be    removed   by    working    alone. 
Washing,  as  already  described,  aids  materially  in  dispos- 
ing of  the  buttermilk,  but  there  is  a  limit  to  its  use,  since  if 
applied  too  copiously,  the  flavor  of  the  butter  is  impaired. 
After  Avorking  and  washing  there  remains  in  the  butter  a 
quantity  of  buttermilk  or  water  which  must  be  removed 
if  the  butter  is  to  admit  of  preservation  for  any  considera- 
ble time.      To  accomplish  this  r.s  far  as  possible,  salting  is 
employed.     The  best  butter  makers,  after  kneading  out 
the   buttermilk   as  far  as  possible,  avoiding  too   much 
working  so  as  not  to  injure  the  consistency  or  "  gram  " 
of  the  butter,  mix  with  it  about  three  per  cent  of  salt, 
which  is  worked  in  layers  and  then  left  standing  for  from 
12  to  24  hours.   At  the  expiration  of  this  time  the  butter 
is  again  worked,  and  still  another  interval  of  standing, 
with  a  subsequent  working,  is  allowed  in  case  the  butter 
is  intended  for  long  keeping.     Finally,  when  put  down, 
additional  salt  (one-half  per  cent.)   is  mixed  at  the  time 
of  packinjr  in  the  tubs  or  crocks."    The  action  of  salt  is 
osmotic.     It  attracts  Avatei*  from  the  buttermilk  that  it 
comes  in  contact  with,  and  also  takes  up  the  milk  sugar. 
It  eftects  thus  a  partial  separation  of  the  constituents  of 
buttermilk.     At  the  same  time  it  penetrates  the  latter 
and  converts  it  into  strong  brine,  which  renders  decom- 
position and  rancidity  difiicult  or  impossible.     Sugar  has 
the  same  eflTect  as  salt,  but  is   more  costly  and  no  better 
in  any  respect.     Independent  of  its  effect  as  a  condiment 
salt  has  two  distinct  offices  to  serve  in  butter  making, 
viz :— First,  to  remove  buttermilk  as  far  as  possible  from 
the  pores  of  the  butter,  and,  second,  to  render  innocuous 
what  cannot  be  thus  extracted." 

CONCERNING    THE   MANNER    OF    WORKING    BUTTER. 

When  the  grain  of  butter  is  injured  the  butter  spreads 
like  <Trease,  and  the  more  it  resembles  grease  the  more  is 
the  grain  injured.  Good  butter  that  has  a  perfect  grain 
will  not  stick  to  the  knife  that  cuts  it.     Butter  that  has 


140  WILLARD'S    PRACTICAL 

110  grain  is  brittle,  and  wlieii  broken  presents  a  jagged 
surface  and  will  not  spread  with  that  smooth,  Avaxy 
appearance  belonging  to  good  butter.  Care,  therefore, 
should  be  taken  not  to  spoil  the  grain  by  over  work- 
ing. In  working  butter  the  hands  should  not  come  in 
direct  contact  with  the  butter.  Gather  it  together  with 
a  wooden  butter  ladle  in  the  tray  or  butter  bowl,  tuni 
off  the  buttermilk  and  wash  with  fresh  spring  water. 
Gash  it  around  the  whole  circumference,  making  chai- 
nels  lowest  at  either  end,  so  that  the  buttermilk  can 
readily  run  off.  Do  not  grind  it  down  against  the  tray, 
after  the  manner  of  tempering  mortar,  for  in  this  way 
you  will  be  likely  to  injure  the  grain.  It  is  not  well  to 
attempt  to  work  out  all  the  buttermilk  at  once.  But 
very  little  manipulation  is  required  in  washing  out  the 
buttermilk;  then  salt  'with  pure  fine  Ashton  or  Onan- 
daga  salt  and  set  aside  in  a  cool  place  for  twelve  hours, 
during  which  time  the  action  of  the  salt  Avill  liberate 
more  of  the  buttermilk.  Then  work  a  second  time  either 
with  the  ladle  or  butter-worker,  using  precautions  not  to 
overwork  or  grind  the  butter  by  rubbing  down  against 
the  tray,  or  slab  if  on  a  butter  Avorker,  and  then  the  but- 
ter is  ready  for  packing. 

CONCERNING  BUTTER  AND  HOW  TO  KEEP  IT. 

We  need  to  know  much  more  than  we  do  about  the 
proper  preservation  of  many  kinds  of  food,  but  especially 
of  butter,  which  so  easily  deteriorates  from  a  luxury  into 
a  state  intolerable  for  human  consumption. 

I  condense  an  account  of  several  preserving  processes 
that  have  been  adopted  in  different  countries  for  butter 
preservation,  giving  simply  the  main  features  of  each. 

IN  girard's  method 

the  butter  requires  to  be  well  worked,  so  as  to  extract 
from  it  all  the  milky  particles,  and  when  this  is, satisfac- 
torily done  the  butter  is  spread  out  and  a  quantity  of 
brandy  or  alchohol  is  poured  over  it,  or  is  then  kneaded 
together  or  worked  up  so  as  to  effectually  mix  the  two 
substances  together.  It  is  now  made  up  into  balls  and 
these  are  wrapped  in  paper  which  has  been  previous  y 
steeped  in  brandy  or  alchohol  spirit.  This  is  afterward 
folded    in  another  paper  which    will  exclude  the  air   as 


BUTTER    BOOK.  24J 

much  as  possible.  For  long  sea  voyages  these  packages 
are  recommended  to  be  packed  in  air-tight  packages. 

IJELIX'S    PROCESS 

is  first  to  beat  up  the  butter  between  two  linen  cloths 
within  three  days  after  it  is  churned,  in  order  to  remove 
the  whey  or  other  matter  which  might  cause  rankness 
of  flavor.  The  butter  is  now  enveloped  in  paper  pre- 
pared for  the  purpose  by  being  coated  with  albumen 
made  from  the  white  of  eggs.  For  every  egg  whose 
white  is  beaten  up,  about  fifteen  and  a  half  gj-ains  of 
chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt),  and  half  that  quantity 
of  salt  of  niter  (saltpeter)  is  dissolved  in  this  albumen, 
but  the  niter  need  not  be  used  except  the  butter  shows 
signs  of  rancidity.  The  paper,  however,  is  not  to  be  con- 
sidered ready  until  it  has  been,  before  and  after  its  pre- 
paration, subjected  to  a  great  heat  by  means  of  a  hot 
smoothing-iron,  or  some  other  contrivance.  For  long  pre- 
servation, the  rolls  are  to  be  kept  in  a  dry  place,  especially 
if  the  weather  is  hot. 

redwood's  process 
consists  chiefly  in  covering  the  butter  with  paraffin. 

BRIXIXG   butter. 

Butter  is  often  eflectually  preserved  from  the  summer 
to  the  winter  time  by  mixing  it  with  salt  and  by  merely 
inclosing  lumps  of  it  in  canvass  wrappers  and  putting 
them  in  jars  containing  a  quantity  of  brine.  The  brine 
does  not  enter  into  the  substance  of  the  butter  or  render 
it  in  any  way  disagreeable.  In  the  preparation  of  brine 
for  butter,  it  is  best  to  heat  the  brine  scalding  hot, 
skimming  it,  and  then  allowing  it  to  cool  and  settle,  pour- 
ing ofl'the  clear,  cold  brine,  which  is  then  fit  for  use. 

preserving    butter   in   FRANCE. 

In  France  the  butter  is  often  melted  down  and  purified 
with  honey,  sixty  grammes  of  honey  to  each  kilogramme 
of  butter.  If  these  are  carefully  mixed,  a  very  superior 
flavor  is  said  to  be  obtained.  Another  method  is  to  take 
one  part  sugar,  one  part  niter  and  two  parts  salt,  and  re- 
duce them  by  grinding  to  a  fine  powder.  Two  ounces  of 
this  mixture  are  kneaded  into  about  two- and  a  quarter 
pounds  of  butter. 
7 


142 


AVILLARDS   PRACTICAL 


SUGAR    AND    SALTPETER    METHOD. 

These  substances  are  regarded  -by  many  old  and  expe- 
rienced butter  makers  as  important  aids  in  the  preserva- 
tion of  batter.  I  have  referred  particularly  to  these  pre- 
servatives, naming  the  proportions  to  be  used  as  thought 
best  by  Orange  County  dairymen.  I  now  present  other 
mixtures:  To  ten  ounces  line  salt  add  two  ounces  salt- 
peter and  two  ounces  best  brown  sugar.  The  different 
ingredients  are  to  be  evenly  mingled  together,  and  an 
ounce  of  this  mixture  used  for  every  pound  weight  of 
butter  and  well  worked  in.  Butter  so  treated,  if  close- 
packed  and  kept  in  a  cool,  well-ventilated  place,  will,  it  is 
said,  keep  sound  for  several  years. 

ANOTHER    RULE 

is,  to  mix  one  ounce  of  finely-powdered  white  sugar  with 
one  ounce  of  saltj^eter  and  two  ounces  of  large-grained 
English  salt,  and,  after  incorporating  them  well  together, 
one  ounce  of  the  mixture  is  used  to  every  pound  of  butter. 
The  mixture  must  be  well  worked  into  the  butter,  which 
is  then  closely  packed  in  clean  earthenware  jars  or  crocks. 
These  are  then  set  aside  and  kept  in  a  very  cool  plac^, 
and  the  butter,  it  is  asserted,  will  remain  in  good  condi- 
tion for  years,  and  has  borne  a  voyage  to  the  East  Indies 
and  still  been  serviceable.  Butter  thus  packed,  it  is  rec- 
ommended, should  stand  untouched  for  two  or  three  weeks 
after  being  packed,  or  it  will  taste  rather  unpalatable ; 
but  after  that  time  it  is  said  to  acquire  a  fine,  marrowy 
flavor. 

RESTORING     RANCID    BUTTER. 

Rancidity  is  caused  by  the  presence  of  butyric  acid, 
and  such  butter  should  be  well  washed  with  good,  new 
milk,  in  which  substance  the  acid  is  freely  soluble.  After 
this  treatment  it  is  to  be  washed  with  cold  spring  water. 

ANOTHER   PLAN 

is  to  beat  up  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  good,  fresh  lime  in 
a  pail  of  water,  and  after  allowing  it  to  stand  for  an  hour, 
until  the  impurities  have  settled,  pour  off  the  clear  portion 
and  wash  the  rancid  butter  in  that. 

When  the  cream  has  been  long  kept  before  churning, 
Avhen  the  utensils  have  been  unclean,  or  when  the  proven- 
der of  the  cows  has  been  in  bad  condition,  it  not  uufre- 


_  BUTTER    BOOK.  I43 

quently  happens  that  the  butter  is  found  to  have  acquired 
a  most  disagreeable  flavor.  This  unpleasant  taste  and 
smell  is  caused  by  an  acid,  and  it  is  customary  in  some 
places  to  put  a  few  drams  of  some  acid-neutralizing 
alkali  to  every  three  pounds  of  butter  ;  sometimes  half  a 
pint  of  vinegar  is  added  to  each  gallon  of  cream  for  the 
same  purpose. 

PACKING    KOLL    BUTTER   FOR    MARKET. 

Late  fall  and  winter  butter  sometimes  sells  best  in 
rolls.  The  trouble  with  roll  butter,  hoAvever,  is  that  it 
often  is  not  properly  packed,  and  from  lack  of  knowledge 
in  this  particular  the  butter  assumes  a  ragged  or  untidy 
appearance,  and  in  consequence  sells  at  a  low  price.  If 
roll  butter  could  be  sent  to  market  in  perfect  form,  it 
would  not  unfrequently  command  from  two  to  five  cents 
per  pound  more  than  when  packed  in  firkins. 

The  Montreal  produce  dealers  give  the  following  in- 
structions to  dairymen  concerning  tlie  packing  of  roll 
butter  for  that  market,  and  the  suggestions  may  be  of 
service  to  dairymen  in  other  sections  when  a  considerable 
quantity  of  roll  butter  is  to  be  prepared  for  shipping. 
Tliey  say: — "Use  none  but  the  very  best  barrels,  and  be 
sure  that  they  are  hot  burnt  or  dirty  inside.  The  end 
intended  for  the  liead  should  be  turned  down,  then  take 
out  the  bottom  head  and  cut  a  piece  of  fine  white  muslin 
the  size  of  the  head  and  place  it  on  the  bottom  of  the 
liead  of  the  barrel — which  will  be  the  head  when  opened. 
Commence  to  pack  the  finest  and  smallest  rolls  first,  taking 
care  to  pack  each  roll  on  its  smallest  end.  Be  careful 
and  select  rolls  that  will  pack  snug,  so  there  will  be  no 
space  for  the  rolls  to  shake  about  ^  continue  packing  in 
this  way  until  the  barrel  is  almost  full,  then  shake  the 
barrel  well  to  settle  the  rolls,  and  then  fill  it  as  snug  as 
possible.  In  packing  the  last  layer  pack  the  rolls  on 
their  ends,  if  possible,  but  if  there  is  not  room  it  will  not 
matter  if  they  are  packed  on  their  sides,  if  they  will  pack^ 
snug  and  fill  the  barrel  full.  The  great  object  is  to  have' 
the  rolls  packed  close  and  tight,  so  that  they  wil  not 
shake  about  and  break. 

"  Each  roll  must  be  wrapped  in  a  piece  of  white  muslin 
or  cheese  capping,  and  it  should  be  large  enough  to  cover 
the  roll  entirely.     The  muslin  must  be  soaked  in  strong 


144  WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 

brine  before  using  and  must  be  put  on  the  roll  wet.  It  is 
impossible  to  send  rolls  to  market  in  good  order  without 
wrapping  them  in  muslin,  and  no  matter  what  the  muslin 
may  cost  it  will  more  than  j^ay  the  cost  in  the  increased 
price  the  rolls  thus  packed  will  bring.  Before  heading 
the  barrel,  pour  on  two  quarts  of  strong  pickle ;  cover 
the  last  layer  with  a  piece  of  muslin  the  same  as  that  put 
on  the  head,  drive  down  the  hoops  well  and  secure  with 
nails.  Then  turn  the  barrel  over  two  or  three  times  so  as 
to  let  the  brine  work  in  between  the  rolls;  mark  the  top 
in  plain  letters,  '  Roll  Butter,'  also  the  gross  weight,  tare 
of  the  barrel,  and  the  address  of  the  party  to  whom  you 
send  it,  and  the  initials  of  the  shipper.  Rolls  should*^  be 
made  oblong  in  shape  and  not  weigh  over  2  to  4  pounds," 

PACKIXG    ROLL    Bl'TTEU    IX   JARS,    PREPARIXG    BRINE,    ETC. 

To  three  gallons  of  brine  strong  enough  to  bear  an  egg 
add  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  nice  white  sugar  and  one 
tablespoonful  of  saltpeter.  Boil  the  brine,  and  when  it  is 
cold  strain  carefully.  Make  your  butter  into  rolls,  and 
wrap  each  roll  separately  in  a  clean,  white  muslin  cloth, 
tying  up  witli  a  string.  Pack. a  large  jar  full,  weight  the 
butter  down,  and  pour  over  the  brine  until  all  is  sub- 
merged. This  will  keep  really  good  butter  perfectly 
sweet  and  fresh  for  a  whole  year.  Be  careful  not  to  put 
upon  ice  butter  that  you  wish  to  keep  for  any  length  of 
time.  In  summer,  when  the  heat  will  not  admit  of  butter 
being  made  into  rolls,  pack  closely  in  small  jars,  and  using 
the  same  brine,  allow  it  to  cover  the  butter  to  the  depth 
of  at  least  four  inches.  This  excludes  the  air  and  answers 
very  nearly  as  well  as  the  first  method  suggested. 

ROLL    BUTTER    IX    TIN'    TASES. 

Roll  butter  is  sometimes  sent  to  market  in  tin  cases,  or 
in  small  cylinders,  each  of  the  size  suitable  to  receive  the 
roll  and  opening  in  the  center,  thus  allowing  the  butter 
to  be  easily  removed.  These  cases  preserve  the  form  of 
the  roll  so  that  it  arrives  in  market  in  as  perfect  condition 
a»  when  it  left  the  dairy.  The  cases  are  placed  in  a 
box,  a  number  together,  when  shipped  to  market,  and 
after  the  butter  is  removed  the  cases  are  returned  to  the 
butter  maker.  This  is  a  nice  way  for  marketing  i*oll 
butter,  which  often  commands  fancy  prices  on  account 
of  its  nice  appearance. 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


145 


THE    METALIC    BUTTER    PACKAGE. 

Metalic  packages  have  been  used  for  a  long  time  by- 
foreign  *^hippers  in  sending  butter  to  warm  climates,  and 
vv'itli  complete  success.  But  it  is  only  quite  recently  that 
an  effort  has  been  made  to  introduce  their  use  among 
butter  manufacturers.  A  common  fault  of  wooden  but- 
ter packages  is  that  they  are  too  loosely  made  and  do  not 
exclude  the  air  from  the  butter.  It  is  useless  to  try  and 
keep  butter  sound,  however  well  it  may  be  made,  unless 
proper  attention  be  given  to  the  packages  and  the  pack- 
ing. Soft  and  resinous  woods  make  poor  packages,  as  a 
flavor  from  the  wood  is  apt  to  be  imparted  to  the  butter. 
The  large  demand  for  packages  has  nearly  exhausted  in 
the  dairy  districts  the  kinds  of  timber  which  car.  be  safely 
used  for  butter,  and  as  a  result  very  much  butter  that 
might  otherwise  be  good  is  injured;  causing  loss  to  both 
producer  and  shipper.  Again,  the  absorption  of  mois- 
ture from  the  butter  by  wooden  packages  leaves  the  sur- 
fiices  dry  and  exposed  to  the  air,  and  causes  the  rancid 
taste  so  common  to  butter  that  has  been  held  in  w^ood 
for  aTiy  length  of  time.  But  there  is  another  objection 
Avhich  has  been  urged  against  wooden  packages,  and  this 
is  the  question  of  soakage,  which  has  long  vexed  both 
buyer  and  seller.  These 
objections  would  be  ob- 
viated by  the  use  of  a  suita- 
ble metalic  juickage,  and 
the  ingenuity  of  inventors 
is  now  being  exercised  in 
this  direction. 

'  HE    ENAMELED    PACKAGE. 

In  the  subjoined  cut,  Fig. 
43,  we  have  the  form  of  an 
enameled  ])ackage  invent- 
ed by  J.  C.  TiLTOx,  of  Pitts- 
burg]), Pa. 

It  is  made  of  malleable 
iron  and  the  inside  enam- 
eled with  porcelain,  the  lid 
being  fastened  in  a  peculiar 
way  so  as  to  be  perfectly 
tight.     It  is  provided  with 


!  FIO.   4& 


]4G 


WILLARD  S    PRACTICAL 


a  bail  to  lacilitatc  liundling,  and  can  be  used  for  other  pur- 
poses besides  butter.  It  is  a  very  strong  and  substantial 
package,  and  would  seein  to  be  well  adapted  for  the  j^ur 
pose  for  -which  it  is  intended. 

A  METALIC    PACKAGE    AVITH    AYOODEX    COVER 

Is  manufactured  by  the  Metalic  Butter  Package  Co., 
Xew  York  City,  the  general  form  of  which  is 
represented  in  Fig.  44.  These  packages 
weigh  but  5  pounds,  and  can  be  put  up  in 
bales  containing  20  packages  each  and  ship- 
ped to  any  part  of  the  country'-  for  a  limited 
freight,  as  they  occupy  little  space,  while  the 
covers,  which  arc  made  of  wood,  can  also  be 
baled  and  shipped  M'ith  them.  This  package 
is  made  larger  at  the  top  than  bottom,  and  can  be 
readily  stripped  if  desired,  leaving  a  clean,  smooth  sur- 
face, with  no  waste  of  butter  from  black,  dirty  staves, 
often  an  objection  in  wood  packages.  The  light  weight 
also  of  this  package  as  compared  Avith"  wooden  packages 
makes  an  important  saving  in  freight  which  can  be  cred- 
ited to  the  profit  of  merchant  or  producer. 

THE  EMPIRE  BUTTER  PACKAGE 

Is  the  invention  of  Chas.  W.  Grannis,  of  Gowanda, 
N.  Y.  One  of  its  main  features  is  being  double  through- 
out. The  outer  surface  is  composed  of  wood,  the  inner 
surface  of  tin  or  wood  as  may  be  prefered.  The  tAVO  sur- 
faces are  placed  apart,  the  sp;ices  formed  may  be  left  un- 
filled or  may  be  filled  Avith  fine  charcoal,  the  latter  'is 
thought  preferable  as  it  is  a  protection  against  heat.  The 
tin  or  inner  lining  is  coated  to  guard  against  rusting. 
This  coating  is  entirely  impervious  to  the  juices  of  the 
butter,  or  boiling  Avater,  and  is  as  sweet  and  clean  as 
glass.  The  cover  is  composed  of  two  entire  circles 
secured  together  with  the  grain  running  crossAvise  Avhich 
prevents  Avarping. 

stone's  tin  package. 

This  is  simply  a  package  in  shape  of  the  common  tin 
pail,  but  is  sun-ounded  with  wood  for  protection.  It  is 
coated  Avith  a  preparation  of  paraffin  which,  Avith  the  man- 
ner of  securing  the  cover,  are  its  chief  features. 


BUTTER    BOOK.  -j^^h 

THE    METALIC    PACKAGE    DEMANDED    BY    THE    TRADE. 

Many  dealers  in  butter  say  there  are  serious  objections 
against  the  return  butter  pail.  These  pails  have  to  be 
looked  after  and  shipped  back  to  the  right  parties,  and 
the  work  is  very  annoying  and  perplexing.  They  ask  for 
a  metalic  ixackage  that  is  sufficiently  well-constructed  to 
keep  butter  in  good  order  during  its  transit,  and  at  the 
same  time  so  cheap  that  it  may  go  to  the  consumer  with- 
out the  necessity  and  trouble  of  being  returned.  Such  a 
package  has  not  yet  been  introduced,  but  it  is  confidently 
believed  by  dealers  and  shippers  that  a  metalic  package 
may  be  made  to  meet  these  conditions. 


SWEDISH  SYSTEM  OF  BUTTER-MAKING. 


Among  chemists,  who  have  had  much  ta  do  in  study- 
ing the  nature  of  milk  and  its  products,  it  has  been 
known  that  ibr  a  number  of  years  the  experiment  station 
of  the  Koyal  Agricultural  Academy  of  Sweden  in  Stock- 
holm, has  been  occupied  with  chemical  investigations  up- 
on milk,  its  composition  and  alteration  and  the  products 
obtained  from  it  in  the  making  of  butter  and  cheese.  I 
need  only  to  refer  to  the  ably  conducted  researches  of 
Prof.  Alexander  Muller  and  his  assistant  Dr.  Eisex- 
STUCK,  to  show  that  there  is  no  higher  authority  recog- 
nized upon  the  subjects  they  have  investigated.  The 
Swedish  Government,  with  wise  forethought  and  praise- 
worthy liberality,  has  fostered  these  scientific  investiga- 
tions concerning  milk  and  its  management  in  dairy  prac 
tice,  and  the  result  is  that  some  of  the  old  notions  in 
relation  to  butter  and  butter-making  have  been  abandoned^ 
and  a  new  order  of  things  inaugurated.  And  among 
these,  tlie  most  remarkable  change  is  the  setting  of  the 
milk  in  ice  water  for  the  ])urpose  of  obtaining  the  cream. 
The  fact  that  Swedish  butter,  under  this  process,  has 
risen  to  that  superior  excellence  that  it  equals,  and  not 
unfrequently  ()u!->ells  all  ihe  choice  brands  brought  into 
the  London  market,   whether  of  home-  or  foreign  make, 


148  WILLAED'S    PRACTICAL 

will  be  to  most  minds  sufficient  proof  that  the  Swedish 
process  is  not  without  merit.  I  know  from  personal  ob- 
servation and  experience  how  fastidious  the  better  classes 
of  London  are  in  regard  to  their  selection  of  fine  grades 
of  butter,  and  American  dealers  know,  to  their  cost,  how 
difficult  it  is  to  realize  high  prices  on  butter  in  England 
Avithout  it  possesses  the  highest  excellence  in  attributes 
that  go  to  make  up  fine  quality.  Swedish  butter  has  been 
quoted  in  the  London  market  during  the  past  year  (1874) 
from  160  to  170  shillings  sterling,  and  upward,  per  cwt., 
Avhile  the  best  American  and  Canadian  in  that  market 
has  brought  only  from  90  to  110  shillings. 

SWEDISH    METHOD    OF    TRKATING    THE    MILK. 

Experience  has  proved  that  cream  cannot  generally  be 
kept  longer  than  50  hours  in  the  summer  and  from  70 
to  80  hours  in  the  winter,  without  affecting  the  quality  of 
the  butter.  The  milk  is  carried  to  the  factories  every 
night  and  morning  immediately  after  the  milking,  from 
the  farmers  not  more  than  1^  English  miles  distant.  It  is 
measured  by  the  womixU  in  charge  of  the  place,  who  en- 
ters the  quantity  delivered.  According  to  her  book,  the 
farmers  receive  payment  at  the  end  of  every  month  for 
the  quantity  of  milk  delivered  during  the  previous  month. 

COOLING    TAXKS. 

For  cooling  the  milk  square  cisterns  or  oval  tanks  are 
used,  both  being  24  inches  in  depth.  Their  other  dimen- 
sions depend  upon  the  quantity  of  jnilk  to  be  strained  at 
one  time,  and  upon  other  circumstances.  Cisterns, 
manufactured  at  the  carpenter  shop  of  the  company,  are 
made  of  })lank  two  inches  thick,  and  inside  nine  feet  long, 
and  three  feet  wide.  Such  a  cistern  is  large  enough  for 
cooling  about  11')  2-10  imperial  gallons  of  milk.  A  loose 
grate,  provided  with  a  three  to  four  inch  wooden  wedge 
is  fastened  to  the  bottom,  inside  the  cistern.  The  pails 
for  setting  the  milk  are  placed  upon  the  grate,  thus 
allowing  the  ice  water  perfect  access  under  the  pails. 

PAILS    FOR    SET-riNG    THE    MILK. 

The  luiik  pails  or  tubs  are  made  of  iron  and  steel 
plate,  and  thoroughly  and  carefully  tinned  inside  and 
out.     OriGfinallv,   when    the    milk    was  cooled   bv  water 


BUTTER    BOOK.  J49 

from  the  wells,  tliese  pails  had  a  diameter  of  18  inches 
and  a  depth  of  24  inches. 

QUICKER   THE    MILK    IS    COOLED   THE    MORE    CREAM. 

By  long  and  careful  experiments  it  has  been  ascertained, 
that  the  more  speedily  the  milk  is  cooled  doion^  the 
more  completely  is  the  cream  separated  from  it.  The 
consequence  is,  tliat  not  only  is  much  colder  water 
now  used  for  cooling  the  milk,  but  the  pails  for  setting  it 
have  also  been  reduced  to  the  smallest  diameter  con- 
sistent with  the  other  management  of  the  milk,  namely, 
about  9  inches,  with  a  depth  of  20  inches,  holding  about 
3  5-14  imperial  gallons. 

OVAL    SHAPED    PAILS. 

In  order  to  be  able  to  use  the  original  pails,  their  bot- 
toms have  been  taken  away,  and  their  sides  pressed  to- 
gether, giving  the  pails  an  oval  shape,  with  a  small 
diameter  of  7  inches  and  providing  them  witli  new  bot- 
toms. The  cooling  power  of  these  pails  has  thus  been 
greatly  increased,  and  many  farmers  prefer  them  to  the 
smaller  cylindrical  ones,  as  being  comparatively  cheaper 
and  the  milk  in  them  more  easily  skimmed. 

ICE    WATER    METHOD. 

Besides  changing  the  form  of  the  pails  in  which  the 
milk  is  set  and  cooled,  other  attempts  have  been  made  to 
quicken  the  cooling  by  using  iced  water  instead  of  w^ell- 
water.  The  temperature  of  the  well  water  is  not  lower 
than  that  of  the  soil,  or  from  42  deg.  to  44  deg.  Fahr. 
whereas  the  temperature  of  water  in  which  ice  chopped  in 
small  pieces  is  permitted  to  melt,  may  easily  be  reduced 
to  35  deg.  or  36  deg.  Fahr.  Cold  wells  are  not  always 
to  be  found,  but  on  the  contrary  are  very  rare  in  some 
districts,  whereas  ice  maybe  had  in  this  northern  country 
at  a  very  small  expense.  The  ice  water  method  is  there- 
fore now  used  at  all  the  milk-houses  as  well  as  by  nearly 
all  the  farmers  who  furnish  the  company  with  cream. 
While  constant  change  of  the  well  w\ater,  where  such  is 
used,  is  required  in  order  to  retain  a  low  temperature,  the 
ice  water  does  not  require  to  be  changed  more  than  a 
few  times  every  year.  The  surplus  water  arising  from 
melting  of  the  ice.  is  let  out  by  a  small  pipe  placed  at  the 
upper  edge  of  the  tank. 


150 


WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 


THE    QUANTITY    OF    ICE    REQUIRED. 

At  the  milk-liouses,  it  is  calcul.-ited  to  be  equal  in  meas- 
urement to  the  quantity  of  milk  tor  the  cooling  of  which 
it  is  intended  ;  but  with  proper  management  two-thirds 
ought  to  be  sufficient.  Tlie  ice  intended  for  the  cooling 
cisterns  is  chopped  in  pieces  of  about  three  to  four  inches 
square,  whereby  its  cooling  power  is  greatly  increased. 

THE     MORE     THE     ORIGINAL     HEAT      IS      RETAINED     WHILE 
BEING    DELIVERED,     THE     MORE    CREAM. 

The  milk  should  be  delivered  as  soon  as  possible  after 
the  milking  is  done,  and  carefully  transported,  and  it  has 
hitherto  been  considered  advantageous  to  cool  the  milk 
during  the  pr^^cess  of  milking,  and  before  being  delivered. 
However,  it  has  recently  been  stated  that  the  more  the 
original  heat  is  retained  until  the  milk  reaches  the 
factory,  the  more  cream  will  the  milk  yield,  as  the  cream 
begins  to  rise  as  soon  as  the  milk  begins  to  get  cold, 
and  the  straining  and  transportation  of  the  cool  milk 
causes  a  very  injurious  interruption  in  the  rising  of 
the  cream,  which  consequently  will  be  imperfect. 
This  seems  very  probable,  but  can  only  be  proved  by 
careful  experiments.  It  is,  however,  a  fact,  that  the 
shorter  distance  the  ndlk  is  transported  the  more  cream 
does  it  yield  ;  other  circumstances,  as  quality,  treatment, 
etc.,  being  the  same. 

HIGHT    OF    THE    ICE    WATER. 

As  soon  as  the  milk  is  strained  into  the  pails,  they  are 
placed  in  the  ice  water  cisterns  at  a  distance  of  about 
three  inches  from  each  other.  Experiments  have  been 
made  to  ascertain  the  proper  hight  of  the  ice  water,  but 
have  not  led  to  any  positive  results.  It  may,  however, 
be  stated,  that  during  the  summer  season  and  when  the 
temperature  of  the  milk-room  is  comparatively  high,  the 
surface  of  ihe  milk  should  be  on  a  level  with  the  surface 
of  the  water,  the  upper  layer  of  cream  being  thus  kept 
as  cool  as  possible  ;  whereas  during  the  winter  season,  or 
wlien  the  temperature  of  the  cooling-room  is  low,  the  sur- 
iace  of  the  milk  should  be  a  few  inches  above  that  of 
the  water. 

THE    TEMPERATURE  OF  THE    COOLING-ROOM 

ought  to  be  kept  as  low  as  possible  during  the  summer 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


151 


seasoii,  but  if  possible  never  below  aO  degrees  P\'xhr.  diir- 
"iiig  the  wintei". 

THE    TIME    REQUIRED    FOR    THE    CREAM   TO    RISE 

dei>eiids  principally  upon  bow  soon  the  milk  is  cooled, 
but  also  upon  the  temperatui-e  of  the  milk  as  well  as  upon 
that  of  the  ice  water  and  of  the  room.  If  a  milk  pail 
(say  of  three  gallons)  be  placed  in  the  ice  water  cistern 
immediately  after  the  milking  and  t!ie  temperature  of  the 
water  does  not  exceed  35  degrees  F'ahr.,  the  milk  may 
usually  be  skimmed  after  a  lapse  of  10  or  13  hours;  but 
it  is  better  and  safer  to  permit  the  milk  to  stand  from  18 
to  24  hours.  At  this  low  temperature  the  cream  rises 
very  suddenly,  but  is  at  first  very  thin,  and  requires  a 
longer  time  to  become  firm. 

TREATMENT    OF    CREAM. 

The  cream  which  is  not  sent  to  the  butter  factory  im- 
mediately after  being  skimmed  off,  ought  to  be  put  into 
the  ice-water  bath  without  delay.  It  ought  not  to  be 
kept  more  than  two  days  during  the  warmer  season  arid 
three  days  during  the  winter  before  being  churned,  as 
otherwise  it  will  become  bitter  or  acquire  a  bad  taste 
easily  detected  in  the  butter.  It  may  be  considered  as  a 
fact  that  the  fresJier  and  absolutely  sweeter  the  cream  is, 
the  better  will  be  the  butter. 

THE   CREAM    OBTAINED    FROM    ISflLK  COOLED   BY  ICE-WATER 

is,  as  above  stated,  thin,  and  generally  not  as  settled  as 
that  which  rises  from  milk  set  in  bowls  or  flat  vessels,  and 
kept  in  a  comparatively  warm  room  ;  and  as  a  smaller 
quantity  of  butter  is  obtained  from  thin  cream  than  from 
thick,  the  opinion  is  often  expressed  that  the  first-named 
method  gives  a  less  satisfactory  result  than  the  latter.  It 
will  be  easily  understood,  liowever,  that  this  is  not  the 
case,  if  the  merit  of  one  or  the  other  method  is  estimated 
by  tlie  quantity  of  butter  obtained  from  a  certain  quantity 
of  milk  instead  of  cream.  Nevertheless,  it  is  true  that 
the  thin  cream  obtained  by  the  ice  method  will  give  more 
buttermilk,  as  well  as  somewhat  less  skimmed  milk,  than 
that  obtained  by  the  well  waie.-  method,  the  ci-e;  m-  et- 
ting  in  both  cases  being  equally  as  perfect;  but  the  loss, 
in  itself  insignificant,  is  more  than  covered  by  the  finer 


152 


WILLARD'S    PRACTICAL 


quality  of  the  butter,  the  better  skini-milk,  and  the  smaller 
expense  for  vessels  and  buildings  required  for  the  keeping 
of  the  milk  during  cream-setting,  besides  the  other  ad- 
vantages of  the  ice- water  method. 

SWEDISH    BUTTER    MAKING. 

A  temperature  of  the  cream  of  57  deg.  to  60  deg.  Fahr. 
has  been  found  the  most  suitable  for  making  butter,  but 
it  depends  somewhat  upon  the  quality  of  the  cream,  the 
nature  of  the  season,  and  the  temperature  of  the  air,  &o. 
The  churns,  which  are  best  adapted  for  working  by  steam 
or  water  power,  consist  of  a  barrel  somewhat  conical 
at  top,  resting  on  a  frame,  and  vertically  moveable  on 
trunnions.  In  this  barrel  a  churn-staif,  provided  with 
two  wings,  rotates  at  a  speed  of  120  to  180  revolutions 
per  minute,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  churn,  which 
generally  contains  from  17  to  60  gallons,  according  to  the 
quantity  of  cream  to  be  churned.  The  butter  is  obtained  in 
about  45  minutes.  It  is  separated  from  the  buttermilk 
by  means  of  a  strainer,  then  placed  in  a  tub  of  tin  and 
carried  to  the  next  room,  where  it  is  further  prepared. 
The  butter  obtained  from  each  separate  quantity  of  cream 
is  then  worked  by  hand  in  a  beechwood  trough  of  oval 
form,  in  order  to  separate  the  buttermilk.  It  is  then 
tested  by  the  managing  dairymaid  and  classified  accord- 
ing to  its  taste  and  other  qualities  in  three  classes,  and 
afterwards  weighed,  the  weight  and  quality  being  noted 
in  the  factory  journal.  Before  churning  tlie  creain,  fluid 
annatto  is  added  in  quantities  suitable  to  the  different 
seasons,  giving  the  butter  the  color  which  is  required  for 
different  markets. 

SALTING    AND    PACKING. 

The  assorted  lumps  of  butter  are  separately  and  care- 
fully worked  together,  during  which  operation  a  certain 
quantity  of  salt,  varying  from  2  to  5  per  cent,  is  added. 
The  salt  used  is  refined  in  Sweden,  and  is  as  pure  and 
dry  as  possible  ;  one  quarter  to  one-half  per  cent  of  sugar 
is   also  added.     AVhen  the  butter  is    ready  it  ought  to 

?ossess  a  waxy  firmness,  perfectly  uniform  in  appearance, 
t  is  then  packed  in  casks  of  beechwood,  previously  well 
saturated  with  brine,  and  containing  from  60  to  100 
pounds  of  butter  each.  Before  closing  the  casks  the 
name  of  the  dairv  where  it  has   been   manufactured   is 


BUTTER    BOOK.  I53 

pressed  in  the  butter,  and  finally  the  butter  is  covered  by 
a  piece  of  gauze,  and  thereupon  a  little  salt.  The  mark 
of  the  company  and  the  net  weight  in  English  pounds 
are  painted  on  the  cover  if  the  butter  is  of  the  first 
quality.  The  casks  containing  second  class  butter  are 
only  marked  with  the  initials  of  the  dairy,  and  third  class 
butter  is  sold  on  the  spot  or  returned  to  the  respective 
deliverers  of  the  cream.  The  butter  is  sent  at  least 
once  a  week  to  the  market  it  is  intended  for. 

KEEPING    QUALITY    OF    SWEDISH    BUTTER. 

During  the  summer  butter  was  placed  for  some  time 
in  a  dry,  cool  cellar,  and  after  two  months  it  brought  the 
same  price  in  London  as  fresh  butter  sent  at  the  same 
time. 

PARISIAN    BUTTER. 

For  the  Russian  market,  as  well  as  for  some  home  de- 
mand, what  is  called  Parisian  butter  has  been  manufac- 
tured. Perfectly  sweet  cream,  which  is  heated  to  from 
176  deg.  to  194  deg.  Fahr.,  and  tlien  permitted  to  cool 
again  to  the  usual  temperature  before  being  churned  is 
used  for  this  kind  of  butter,  which  is  otherwise  made  in 
the  usual  manner,  lint  without  adding  ainiatto  or  salt. 
By  the  iieating  of  the  cream,  the  butter  obtains  a  slight 
almond  taste  and  seems  also  to  keep  longer. 


BUTTER-MAKING  AT  THE.  CHEESE  FACTORIES. 


Within  the  last  three  or  four  years  a  good  quality  of 
butter  has  been  made  at  some  of  the  cheese  fiictories. 
The  plan  adopted  is  to  spread  out  the  night's  milk  in  the 
vats  used  for  making  cheese,  allowing  a  stream  of  water 
to  flow  under  the  inner  vat,  or  to  fill  the  space  between 
the  inner  and  outer  vats.  The  milk  is  by  this  means  re- 
duced to  about  60. degrees,  and  what  cream  rises  during 
the  night  is  skimmed  oflT  in  the  morning  and  made  into 
butter. 

The  morning's  milk  is  then  added  to  the  skimmed  milk 
as  it  comes  to  the  factory,  and  is  made  .into  cheese  by  the 


lo4 


WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 


usual  process,  except  thnt  a  lower  heat  and  less  salt  is 
used  than  for  the  whole-railk  cheese. 

By  careful  manipulation  and  skill,  very  nearly  as  good 
a  product  of  cheese  is  made  as  at  the  factories  making 
whole-milk  cheese  ;  at  least,  with  good  milk  and  high 
skill,  experts  are  unable  to  detect  the  difference. 

At  one  of  these  factories,  which  I  visited  in  1874,  the 
delivery  of  milk  for  the  day  amounted  to  6,839  lbs.  The 
cream  taken  from  the  night's  mess  of  milk  made  87  lbs.  of 
butter,  and  when  the  morning's  jnilk  was  added  to  the 
skimmed  milk  it  made  nine  cheeses  of  72  lbs.  each. 

In  some  factories,  in  order  that  the  night's  milk  may 
not  be  massed  together  in  too  large  quantities,  resort  is 
had  to  a  large,  shallow  pan  set  in  a  wooden  vat  with  space 
between  the  two  for  water.  The  milk  is  set  in  these  pans 
from  two  to  three  inches  deep,  and  a  stream  of  coid  Avater 
kept  flowing  in  the  space  between  the  pan  and  the  vat 
during  the  night. 

WHEY    BUTTER. 

At  the  whole-milk  cheese  factories  a  process  has  been 
adopted  for  taking  the  butter  out  of  whey  and  preparing 
it  for  table  use.  Whey  butter  is  not  equal  in  flavor  or 
texture  to  the  product  manufactured  at  the  butter  factor- 
ies. Still,  by  this  process,  whey  butter  may  be  made 
quite  palatable,  and,  when  fresh,  it  commands  a  fair  price. 

I  have  seen  whey  butter  side  by  side  in  the  markets 
with  that  made  from  cream  in  the  usual  way  at  farm 
dairies,  and  dealers  have  selected  the  former  in  preference 
to  the  latter,  not  for  a  moment  suspecting  its  origin. 
Indeed,  so  fine  have  been  some  of  the  samples,  and  so 
neatly  were  they  put  up,  that  it  has  been  sold  when  quite 
fresh  at  the  Little  Falls  market  for  the  same  price  as 
ordinary  brands  of  butter  made  in  the  flirm  dairieF. 

Whey  butter  soon  deteriorates  in  flavor,  and  should  be 
consumed  when  freshly  made.  We  give  description  of 
apparatus  and  process  of  making  as  follows : 

Apparatus. — The  apparatus  is  a  copper-bottomed  vat 
12  feet  long  by  3  feet  wide  and  20  inches  deep.  These 
dimensions  maybe  varied  to  accommodate  the  size  of  the 
dairy.  The  vat  sets  over  a  brick  or  stone  arch,  and  is 
accommodated  to  the  use  of  18  or  20-inch  wood.  The 
floor  is  a  slightly  inclined  plane  toward  the  back  of  the 


BUTTER     BOOK. 


15.^ 


vat.  The  vat  and  areli  sliould  be  placed  a  little  lower 
than  the  milk-vat,  so  as  to  enable  the  whey  to  be  easily 
drawn  off  by  means  of  a  syphon. 

The  Process. — After  drawing  the  whey  from  the  cnrd 
into  the  vat  over  the  arch  referred  to,  one  gallon  of  acid 
is  added  to  the  whey  for  every  50  gallons  of  niilk,  if  the 
whey  is  sweet.  If  the  whey  is  changed,  a  less  quantity 
will  be  sufficient,  and  if  the  acid  is  not  sharp,  one  pound 
of  salt  should  be  incorporated  with  it. 

The  acid  having  been  added  in  the  above  proportions, 
heat  is  immediately  applied  to  the  mass  until  it  indicates 
a  temperature  of  from  170  to  180  degrees  Fahrenheit. 
The  cream  now  begins  to  rise  and  is  skimmed  off  with  a 
tin  sooop ;  and  when  it  has  all  been  removed,  it  is  set  in 
a  cool  place  and  left  to  stand  for  24jiours.  It  is  then 
churned  at  a  temperature  of  from  56  to  G8  degrees,  ac- 
cording to  the  temperature  of  the  weather,  and  is  then 
worked  and  salted  in  the  ordinary  manner  of  butter- 
making.  This  process  gives  on  an  average  20  pounds  of 
butter  from  500  gallons  of  whey. 

Making  the  Acid. — The  acid  is  made  by  taking  any 
quantity  of  whey  after  extracting  the  cream,  heating  it  to 
the  boiling  point,  and  adding  a  gallon  of  strictly  sour 
whey  for  every  10  gallons  of  boiling  whey,  when  all  the 
caseine  and  albuminous  matter  in  the  whey  will  collect  in 
a  mass,  and  may  be  skimmed  off.  The  whey  is  now  left 
to  stand  for  24  or  48  hours,  wdien  it  wdll  be  ready  for  use 
as  acid. 

AXNATTO    AND    ANNATTOINE. 

The  butter  factories  prefer  to  give  color  to  their  butter 
by  having  the  cows  well  fed,  and  by  getting  up  the  cream 
as  quickly  as  possibly  after  the  milk  is  drawn.  Some- 
times, in  winter,  a  little  coloring  may  be  r^sed,  and  for 
this  jKirpose,  as  well  as  for  coloring  the  cheese,  nothing 
has  giving  so  much  satisfaction  as  annattoine,  or  the  dry 
extract  of  annatto. 

It  is  cut  or  made  ready  for  use  in  the  following  man- 
ner:  1.  Put  two  pounds  of  annattoine  in  four  gallons  of 
clear,  cold  water,  and  let  it  stand  in  this  state  one  day, 
stirring  thoroughly  meantime,  so  as  to  perfectly  dissolve 
the  annattoine.  2.  Then  put  two  pounds  strongest  potash 
and   one  pound  sal-soda  in   three  gallon;?  of  cold  water. 


155  WILLARDS    PRAOTIOAL 

When  this  is  perfectly  dissolved  and  settled,  ponr  off  the 
clear  liquor  and  mix  the  two  preparations  (Nos.  1  and  2) 
together.  3.  Let  this  compound  stand  two  or  three  days, 
until  the  annattoine  is  cut  or  dissolved  perfectly  by  the 
potash,  stirring  occasionally  meantime.  4.  For  cheese, 
vise  about  a  teacupful  for  a  thousand  pounds  of  milk.  Do 
not  mix  with  the  rennet,  but  put  it  in  a  little  milk,  and 
then  mix  in  the  mass  of  milk  in  the  vats  by  stirring  it  in 
thoroughly,  just  before  the  rennet  is  used. 

If,  a  day  or  two  after  the  preparation  is  made,  the  an- 
nattoine does  not  seem  to  be  perfectly  cut,  so  that  specks 
can  be  seen,  it  is  certain  that  the  potash  was  not  strong 
enough.  Adding  more  of  a  stronger  solution  of  potash 
Avill  remedy  the  trouble. 

AVhen  annattoine  is  used  for  coloring  butter,  a  portion 
of  the  prepared  liquor  is  added  to  the  cream  at  the  com- 
mencement of  churning.  It  gives  a  very  rich  color,  and 
may  be  used  in  winter-made  butter  with  advantage.  For 
winter  butter  a  large  tablespoonful  of  the  preparation  for 
five  quarts  of  cream  just  before  churning  is  the  usual 
practice.  Xichols'  (English)  liquid  annatto  is  an  excellent 
preparation  for  butter. 


THE  skim-chi-:ese  department. 

I  have  referred  to  the  manufacture  of  "skim-cheese  " 
as  a  part  of  the  butter-factory  system.  I  have  said  that 
the  cream  is  dipped  from  the  milk  while  it  is  sweet,  and 
that  the  latter  then  goes  into  the  milk  vats  for  making 
"  skim-cheese." 

It  should  be  remarked  that  at  the  butter  factories  the 
quantity  of  milk  to  be  manipulated  is  usually  much  smaller 
than  at  the  cheese  factories.  In  making  a  fancy  product 
it  is  found  advisable  that  the  delivery  of  milk  be  kept 
within  moderate  bounds,  say  from  three  hundred  to  five 
hundred  cows.  The  factory  railk-vats  are  all  essentially 
alike  in  form  and  size.  They  hold  from  five  hundred  to 
six  hundred  gallons  each, 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


157 


There  is  a  great  variety  of  heating  apparatus,  boilers, 
steamers,  tanks  for  hot  water,  and  what  are  termed  "  selt- 
heaters,"  that  is  with  fire-box  attached  to  nnd  immedi- 
ately below  the  milk-vat.  This  kind  of  heater  was  at  one 
time  very  popiUar  at  the  small  butter  factories  where 
churning  is  done  by  liorse-power,  as  it  consumes  but  little 
fuel,  is  easily  managed,  and  does  as  good  work  as  the  best. 

In  the  more  recent  practice  the  tendency  is  to  lit  up  the 
factory  wath  a  steam  boiler  and  engine,  because  then  an 
efficient  and  convenient  power  is  at  hand  to  do  the  churn- 
imr,  while  steam  can  be  employed  for  heating  the  vats, 
for  cleansing  dairy  utensils,  for  warming  the  apartments 
by  means  of  piping,  and  for  other  purposes  connected 
Avith  creamery  operations. 

As  the  "self-heaters,"  however,  are  useful  in  farm 
dairies  and  often  may  be  desirable  in  small  creameries,  I 
give  illustrations  of  those  in  popular  use.  As  their  opera- 
tion will  be  readily  understood  from  the  cuts,  it  will  be 
unnecessary  for  me  to  give  a  description  of  the  various 
parts  and  operations  of  each. 


Fig.  45.— Joxes  &  Faulkner's  New  SELr-HEATiNG  Vat. 


In  large  creameries  steam  has  been  and  will  probably 
continue  to  be  the  most  popular  method  of  heating.  I 
have  given  illustrations  of  the  most  approved  engines 
and  boilers  for  factory  use.  The  vats  used  in  connection 
with  steam  are  all  nearly  of  the  same  character — the  outer 
or  wooden  vat  of  clear,  well-seasoned  pine,  the  inner  vat 
of  large  tin,  imported  expressly  for  this  purpose.  They  are 
of  different  sizes,  from  12  to  16  feet  long  and  from  3  to 
3^  feet  wide,  19  inches  deep,  and  holding  from  450  to 
030  crallons. 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


158 


GANG    PRESS. 


The  old  style  of  press  is  being  superseded  by  Fri?re's 
patent,  which  is  less  cumbersome,  more  convei.vant, 
doing  more  work  with  less  labor,  (see  page  160.) 


In  this  Press  one  screw   is  made  to  take  the  place 
twelve  to  twenty,  if  necessary,  eaeli  cheese  receivins- 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


159 


full  pou-er;  the  Imndage  is 
easily  and  perfectly  adjusted 
in  the  hoop  before  putting  in 
the  curd,  and  the  hoops  hay- 
ing bottoms,  the  curd  is 
easily  measured  or  weighed 
in,  in  even  quantities,  and 
when  the  hoops  are  prepared 
for  press,  the  wliole  coluinn 
is  as  quickly  and  more  easily 
put  to  press  than  even  one 
can  be  by  the  old  method. 

All  press-boards  and  press- 
cloths,  with  the  necessary 
labor  of  cleansing,  are  done 
away  with.  No  turning, 
trimming  or  after  bandaging 
is  required,  but  when  once 
put  to  press  they  are  allowed 
to  remain  under  a  constant 
pressure  till  finislied  and 
ready  for  the  shelf. 

SKIM-CIIEESE   MAXUFACTURE. 

The  limit  assigned  for  this 
book  Avill  not  allow  a  lengthy 
description  giving  all  the  de- 
tails of  clieese  making.  This 
subject  is  very  fully  discussed 
in  my  large  work  entitled 
"Practical  Dairy  Husband- 
ry," to  which  readers  seeking 
extended  knowledge  must  be 
referred. 

In  making  cheese  from 
skimmed  milk  the  leading- 
points  of  diiference  in  the 
process  from  that  employed 
for  whole  milk  cheese  are  that 
the  milk  is  set  at  a  lower 
temperature  and  more  rennet 
is  employed.  Tlie  "  scald- 
ins: "  or    "cooking:"    of    the 


160 


WILLARDS   PRAOTIOAL 


curds,  so  called,  is  at  a  lower  temperature  than  for 
whole  milk  cheese  and  the  saltiiiG:  is  less,  but  in  curing 
skimmed  cheese,  the  temperature  of  the  curing  room 
may  be  allowed  to  range  higher.  The  reason  why- 
more  rennet  is  required  in  skinmied  milk  than  in  whole 
milk,  was  first  explained  in  my  address  before  the  Cana- 
dian Dairymen's  Association,  in  which  I  detailed  some  of 
the  investigations   of  Dr.  Bastian. 

From     experi- 
ments in  this  di- 
rection     it      ap- 
pears that  the  lat 
,^=  globules    are   es- 
pecially concern- 
ed   in  the  trans- 
formations       or 
changes    which    we     wish  to 
bring  about  by  the  addition 
of  rennet  to  the  milk  and  that 
if  a    large    share    of  the    fat 
globules    are   removed    from 
the  milk,  the  designed  trans- 
formation   is  weakened,  and 
Fig.  49.  more  of  tlie  fermenting  liquor 

or  rennet  will  be  required  to  supply  the  power  lost  by 
abstracting  the  fatty  portions  of  the  milk. 


In  setting  skimmed  milk  a  tem])erature  of  about  80  de- 
grees Fahr.  but  sometimes  lower,  is  employed  in  making 
it  ready  for  the  rennet,  of  which  a  larger  quantity  should 
be  ueed  than  for  whole  milk  cheese,  the  proportion  should 
be  graduated  according  to  the  amount  of  cream  which 
has  been  removed,  or  as  the   milk  is  more  or  less  rich. 

CUTTING    AND    SCALDING. 

It  is  cut  with  the  perpendicular  and  horizontal  knives 
in  the  usual  manner  as  for  whole  milk  cheese,  and  the 
process  of  working  is  similar;  only  the  scalding  heat  should 
not  be  allowed  to  go  higher  than  86  degrees  to  90  de- 
grees Fahr.  The  crurds  are  allowed  to  take  on  an  acid 
condition  and  are  saUed  at  the  rate  of  about  2|-  to  2} 
pounds  salt  to  the  .100  pounds  of  curd ;  though  it  must  be 


BUTTER    BOOK.  |gl 

remarked  the  quantity  of  salt  must  be  regulated  accord- 
ing to  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  curds. 

SIZE    or    CHEESE. 

Of  late  years  the  tendency  has  been  to  make  skim- 
cheese  of  smaller  size  than  those  usually  made  at  the 
whole-cheese  factories,  because  there  is  a  demand  in  the 
market  for  small  sized  cheese  which  the  whole-milk  fac- 
tories do  not  supply,  consequently  a  small,  fancy  shaped 
skim  will  not  unfrequently  find  a  readier  sale  and  better 
prices  simply  on  account  of  its  size.  I  have  knoM'n  half  skim- 
cheese,  that  is  a  cheese  made  from  milk  the  half  of  which 
(the  night's  mess)  was  skimmed,  to  sell  at  the  Little  Falls 
market,  at  the  same  prices  as  those  obtained  for  the 
best  fancy  whole-milk  factories,  and  these  rates  were 
obtained  for  the  whole  season.  The  cheese  was  of 
good  quality,  but  the  rates  were  maintained  on  account  of 
the  smaller  and  more  desirable  size  as  compared  with  the 
fancy  whole-milk  cheese,  offered  at  that  market. 

The  best  temperature  for  curing  whole-milk  cheese  is 
at  about  70  deg.  Fahr.  For  curing  skim-cheese  the  tem- 
perature should  be  several  degrees  higher,  in  order  to 
keep  up  the  necessary  fermentation  by  which  the  proper 
changes  may  be  brought  about  for  breaking  down  the 
caseine  and  effecting  a  more  complete  assimilation  of  the 
moisture,  so  as  to  make  a  mellow  and  plastic  article  of 
food. 


IMPROVING  SKIMMED  MILK  FOR  CHEESE  MANUFACTURE. 


Since  the  wide-spread  introduction  of  creameries,  and 
the  general  tendency  to  increase  the  production  of 
butter  through  the  creamery  system,  fears  have  been  en- 
tertained that  skim-cheese  maiuifacture  would  be  carried 
to  excess.  Already  the  leading  cheese  merchants  of  the 
country  complain  that  there  is  an  over-pi'oduction  of  this 
class  of  goods.  They  say  that  often  the  markets  are 
crowded  with  these  inferior  iroods,  much  to  the  detriment 


|g2  WILLARD'S   PRACTICAL 

of  wliole-iiiilk  cheese,  (lragi2:ing  down  prices.  An  excel- 
lent reputation  has  now  l)een  established  for  American 
cheese  in  the  markets  of  Britain,  and  the  demand  abroad 
for  good  cheese  at  good  prices  is  sufficient  to  meet  all 
surphis  above  home  wants  i.i  American  production.  But 
poor  clioese  is  not  wanted  abroad,  except  at  very  low 
rates,  and  the  liandling  of  such  cheese  is  attended  with 
great  peril  to  dealers.  They  say,  therefore,  that  an  in- 
crease of  skim-cheese  manufacture  must  in  tlie  end 
destroy  the  good  name  of  American  cheese  in  the 
foreign  markets,  and  they  therefore  urge  that  in  creamery 
practice,  butter  only  should  be  made,  and  the  skimmed 
milk  be  sent  to  the  farm  to  be  used  in  feeding  domestic 
animals. 

Mr.  H.  O.  FiiEEir.vN  of  Sherburne,  Chenango  County, 
N".  Y.,  seems  to  have  liit  upon  a  plan  for  avoiding  all  the 
difficulties  named — of  converting  the  skininied-milk  into 
a  palatable  and  healthful  article  of  food,  and  which  sells 
for  a  good,  fair  price,  both  at  home  and  abroad.  And 
though  it  miy  lack  the  flavor  and  quality  of  our  best 
fancy  whole-milk  cheese,  still  it  is  meaty  and  possesses 
none  of  the  characteristics  of  the  ordinary  skim-cheese, 
but  compares  favorably  with  much  of  the  whole-milk 
cheese  on  the  market.  I  have  been  using  the  so-called 
"  oleomargarine"  cheese  on  my  table  and  I  agree  with 
Prof  Caldwell  and  others  Avho  have  used  it  in  their 
families  during  the  past  year,  that  the  cheese  is  palatable 
and  makes  a  good,  healthful  article  of  food.  I  am  informed 
that  dealers  who  have  handled  the  so-called  oleomargarine 
cheese  during  the  past  year,  have  met  with  good  returns 
in  its  sale,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  and  that  no  com- 
plaint has  been  entered  against  it  in  the  markets  or  by 
consumers ;  and  that  they  have  fiiith  in  the  process,  is  in- 
dicated by  their  becoming  stockholders  in  a  company  for 
prosecuting  its  manufacture. 

Oleomargarine  has  been  for  the  most  part  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  this  cheese,  but  whey  butter  or  any  low 
grad3  of  butter,  if  clean  and  purified  of  its  rancidity, 
may  also  be  used  successfully. 

As  much  interest  has  been  manifested  concerning  this 
mw  process  for  improving  skimmed  clieese,  I  give  an 
illustration,  Fig.  54,  of  the  Ridge  ]Mills  Creamery,  uear 
Rome,  Oneida  County,  N.  Y.,  and  the  process  of  manu- 


BUTTER    BOOK. 


163 


facturing.  This  creamery  has  but  just  been  erected  and 
goes  into  operation  the  present  season,  1875,  for  the  first. 
It  has  many  improvements  and  may  be  regarded  as  one 
of  the  model  creameries  of  the  State. 

Referring  to  the 
ground  plan,  Fig.  50, 
the  main  structure  is 
75  feet  by  40  feet,  and 
the  curing  rooms  100 
feet  by  25  feet.  The 
wing,  or  engine  and 
boiler-room  is  26  by  26. 
A  is  the  receiving- 
room,  and  1  the  weigh- 
ing can  ;  B  is  the  cool- 
ing-rooin,  and  2  the 
cooling-vats  ;  C  is  the 
make  room,  3  the 
cheese-vats  and  4  the 
chilrd-sink;  D  is  the 
press-room  and  5  Fra- 
zer's  gang  presses  ;  E 
is  the  butter-room  and 
6  the  cream-vats  ;  V  the 
churns  ;  F,  engine, 
boiler  and  fuel  room; 
G,  celhir  under  curing- 
room  ;  H,  boiler ;  I, 
engine ;  J,  cold  Avater 
tank;  K,  hot  water 
tank ;  L,  vessel  to  melt 
the  oleomargarine  by 
steam. 

From  A,  the  receiv- 
ing-room, the  milk 
kee|3S  moving  towards 
its  destination  for 
cheese ;  and  this,  after 

being  taken  from  the  press,  is  readily  hoisted  to  the  curing 
rooms.  The  cream,  when  separated  from  the  milk,  also 
takes  its  separate  course  and  forms  a  distinct  manufacture 
from  the  cheese.  The  room  B,  has  a  raised  floor  of  2 
feet  above  the  make  room,  (see  Fig,  51).  So  that  after  the 


164 


WILLARDS    PRACTICAL 


cooling  vats  are  skiintned  tlie  milk  is  readily  drawn  off 
into  the  clieese-vats  through  a  faucet  in  the  bottom  of  the 
cooling-vat,  and  conducted  by  tin  conductors  into  the 
cheese-vat.  The  manner  in  which  this  is  effected,  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  51,  which  gives  a  sectional  end  view  of  the 
factory. 

The  cooling  vats  are  similar    to   a  cheese-vat   in  con- 


c 

— ^ 

B 

\    COOLING  VAT. 

=A 

\      CHEBSE  Wu         I 

=  _       1 

1 

^"^==^=^l^i::=^'^l 

Fig.  51. 

struction,  with  the  addition  of  a  tin  cover,  setting  on 
top,  over  which  a  thin  layer  of  cool  water  is  run  and  the 
cool  temperature  caused  by  it  falling  upon  the  milk  cools 
the  latter  quite  rapidly.    This  co^■er  is  lifted  up  by  weights 

when  the  milk  is  to  be 
skimmed  and  the  vat  wash- 
ed preparatory  to  receiving 
the  fresh  milk.  The  sub- 
joined cut  illustrates  a  face 
Fig.  5'.'.  view  of  the  cover.  Fig.  52. 

Tiie  water  runs  in  througa  a  pipe  at  the  end,  B  B.  the 
pipe  being  perforated,  and  distributes  the  water  in  a 
shower.  The  water  after  passing  over  the  top,  runs  into  the 
wooden  vat  and  surrounds  the  tin  vat  on  the  sides  and 
bottom,  running  off  as  fist  ns  it  runs  in  over  the  top  of 
tin  cover.  The  five  holes,  AAA,  represents  five  venti- 
lators, say  two  to  three  inches  in  diameter,  to  allow  the 
escape  of  warm  air. 

The  depth  of  this  cover  is  from  two  to  three  inches  and, 
as  before  stated,  the  w^ater  running  ov^er  it  is  not  deep,  say 
one-fourth  of  an  inch.  The  Ridge  Mills  Creamery,  like 
all  those  owned  by  the  Amei-ican  Dairy  and  Commercial 
Com.pany,  is  built  on  princi])les  which  ensure,  as  far  as  a 
wooden  structure  can.  the  equal  temperature  of  the  whole 


buil<^Vms 


BUTTER    BOOK.  166 

It  is  filled  in  on  all  bides  with  saw-dust  and  the 


top  ^toiy  ceiling  is  covered  with  the  same  to  the  thickness 
of  some  six  inches.  The  curing-room  is  warmed  by  steam 
pipe  supplied  from  a  U-horse  power  boiler.  Mr  Ireeman 


Fig.  53-lTKRioii  View  of  Kidgk  Mills  CreAxMery. 

tliinks  a  ureat  mistake  made  by  many  factories  is  tlie 
inadequate  power  of  the  boiler,  and  that  too  many  place 
a  boy  in  tins  department  to  do  a  man's  work.  Mr. 
Freeman  gives  the  following  details  in  regard  to  the 
mannfacture  of  oleomargarine  cheese. 

TWO    METHODS    OF    SETTING    MILK. 

Wc  use  two  methods  of  setting  milk. 

First.  In  some  of  our  fjictories  we  set  in  tin  coolers, 
9x20,  placing  them  in  pools  of  cool  spring  water  from  24 
to  48  hours,  according  to  season  of  year  and  temperature 
of  atmosi)here. 

Second.  In  other  four  factories  we  use  a  cooling  vat 
holding  about  8,500  pounds  of  milk,  similar  to  a  cheese 
vat,  except  there  is  a  cover  upon  the  same,over  which  water 
is  run  and  returned  under  the  vat.  ^  In  this  cover  there 
arc  ventilators  to  enable  the  warm  air  to  escape,  as  it  is 
driven  out  of  the  milk. 

AMOUNT    OE    BUTTER    TAKEN    FROM    THE    MILK. 

Takino-    the    season    through,    we    obtain    fully    three 


166 


WILLARD'S    PRACTICAL 


BUTTER    BOOK.  Ig^ 

pounds  of  l)utter  from  eacli  one  liundied  pounds  of  milk 
received.  In  some  locations  we  can  obtain  more  butter, 
but  the  above  is  a  safe,  estimate.  At  the  McLean  cream- 
ery, Tompkins  Co.,  N.  Y.,  tlie  result  for  the  past  season 
of  1874,  was  one  pound  of  butter  from  each  32  41-100 
pounds  of  milk. 

MILK    NOT   ALLOWED  TO    SOUK. 

The  cream  is  taken  from  the  milk  before  it  sours,  in 
order  to  properly  preserve  the  skimmed  milk  for  manu- 
facturing into  cheese. 

AMOUNT     OF    OLEOMARGARINE     ADDED     TO    THE     SKIMMED 

MILK. 

To  every  one  thousand  pounds  of  skimmed-milk,  there 
is  added  ten  pounds  of  oleomargarine,  and  the  produc- 
tion of  quality  of  cheece  has  been  described. 

PRODUCT    MADE. 

From  one  hundred  pounds  of  pure  unskimmed  milk  we 
obtain  : 

J^irst.     3  ])Ounds  of  butter. 

Second.  6^  pounds  cured  cheese,  to  which  is  added, 
one  pound  oleomargarine,  which  weight  is  retained  in  the 
curing  of  tlie  cheese. 

In  other  words,  after  repeated  trials  of  making  on  the 
same  dav  cheese  from  full  skimmed  milk  as  usually  prac- 
ticed, and  cheese  from  full  skimmed  milk  with  oleomarga- 
rine added,  it  has  been  found  that  the  latter  when  cured 
fully  outweiglis  the  former  by  the  amount  of  oleomar- 
garine added  to  the  latter. 

A     LESS     WEIGHT     OF     MATERIAL     OBTAINED     THAN      FRO.AI 
FULL    :},riLK      CHEESE. 

In  making  butter  and  cheese  from  the  same  milk,  there 
is  not  so  great  a  quantity  of  material  obtained  from, 
say  100  pounds  of  milk,  as  in  making  full  cream-milk 
cheese,  since  the  buttermilk  contains  caseine  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  and  we  do  not  use  the  buttermilk  in  the 
manufacture  of  cheese. 

SOUR  CREAM  MAKES  MORE   AND    BETTER-KEEPING    BUTTER. 

It  has  been  found  th.at  soui-ing  cream  before  churning 
increases  the  ])roduction  of  buttei-,  and  also  produces  a 


168 


WILLAHD'S    PRACTICAL 


keeping  quality  of  butter.  The  sour  buttermilk  may  add 
to  the  quantity  of  cheese,  but  the  quality  is  not  such  as 
commends  itself  to  the  consumer. 

COST    OF    OLEOMARGARINK. 

The  oleomargarine  costs  in  New  York  city  from  14  to 
15  cents  per  pound,  and  therefore,  if  the  cheese  made 
from  skimmed  milk  and  oleomargarine  should  sell  for  14 
or  15  cents  per  pound,  the  cost  of  fat,  added,  would 
amount  to  nothing,  as  it  has  been  proved  the  fat  increases 
the  weight  of  the  cheese  fully  as  much  as  the  quantity 
used. 

MODE     OF    MANUFACTLTRE. 

The  mode  of  manufacture  of  oleomargarine  cheese  is 
very  simple,  and  differs  but  slightly  from  the  manufacture 
of  all  other  cheese.  The  skimmed  milk  is  placed  in  the 
usual  cheese  vat  and  heated  to  92  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
when  the  oil,  fat,  or  whatevcir  you  may  choose  to  add,  so 
long  as  it  is  "  fat " — having  first  been  melted  in  a  sepa- 
rate vessel, — is  added  to  the  skimmed  milk  and  stirred 
from  3  to  5  minutes,  or  until  an  emulsion  is  effected,  when 
rennet  is  added  sufficient  to  cause  coagulation  in  from  8 
to  10  minutes,  and  thus  the  fat  added  is  made  to  enter 
into  the  composition  of  the  curds  while  the  latter  are  in 
a  nascent  state.  The  curd  is  then  cut  and  worked  in  the 
manner  of  all  careful  cheese  factories,  and  such  fat  as  is 
expelled  by  cutting  off  the  curd  rises  on  top  of  the  whey 
and  is  skimmed  off  before  the  latter  is  drawn,  and  is  used 
the  following  day. 

SET    AT     HIGHER    TEMPERATURE    AND     COAGULATES      MORE 
QUICKLY. 

You  will  observe  that  we  set  at  a  higher  temperature 
than  is  usual  in  the  factories  of  this  country,  and  it  is 
found  necessary  to  do  so  in  order  to  produce  the  proper 
emulsion  of  the  skimmed  milk  and  fat.  We  also  set 
quicker ;  but  the  higher  temperature  requires  but  little 
more  rennet  to  accomplish  the  quick  setting  than  the  or- 
dinary heat  applied  to  milk  for  slow  setting. 


INjjEX 


Aeration 6(5 

Annattoine 155 

Annatio.  Nichols' 150 

Boiler,  Anderson 122 

and  engine,  Jones  &  B'aulk-        j 

ner 118-119  | 

andenfiine,  Roe'a 120 

and  engine,  Cliarles  Millar..  119 

and  engine,  Iron  Slave 119  ( 

Butter 55-tiO  1 

additional      suggestions      in 

worliing,  washing  and  salting  iOj  | 

Artificial (iO  ' 

Associated  dairying 89  I 

Amount  from  given  quantity         I 

milk  at  Cold  Spring  l<'aciory..  IHO 

Brining , 141 

Box  for  factory  128  I 

Cause  of  rancidity  in (^1 

Causes  that  delay  coming i;>;{ 

Churning  and  washing 1|;>I 

Coloring lot;  I 

(%)nHiosition  ot m\ 

(Join  i>o^ition  of  fatty  acids  of    f)!!  I 

Concerning  and  liow  to  koo|>  140  1 

ComuMtiing      the       keeping 

qualities  of 87  I 

Concerning  the    manner    of         | 

working 139 

Consumption     increases     as         I 

quality  improves 6  I 

'rop,    numUer    of   cows    re- 
quired for fi  I 

Cop 5  1 

J);jke  process 132 

Dake   system  for  improving        1 

farm  dairy 132 

Explanation  of  rancidity  in..    57 

Factory,  plan  of  first 93 

Kactory   plan     of    for    large 

puns )27-13S 

Flavoring  oils  of 55 

How  rancid  may  be  purified.    58 

Keeping  qualities  of  Swedish  153 

Making   at   ilie   cheese  fac- 
tories   153 

Making,  Colvert's  process  of    ttt 

Making,  points  concerning..    8tj 

Making  premium  on  Shallow 

Setting  System 129 

Making  Swedish 152 

milk,  expelling 102 

more   from    churning    milk 

than  cream 136 

more     obtained    by    mixing 

milk  of  di£F«;rent  cows 

more  olein  in  summer 

Parisian 

Philadelphia „ 

» Philosophy   of   making  and 

keeping 133 


I 
60 

153 


Butter  Preservation  of,     Girard'g 

pounds  of  milk  required  for 

at  Factories 124 

Preserving  of,  in  France 141 

Preserving,  sugar  and    salt- 
peter   142 

Preserving  another  rule 142 

Preservation  of 140 

Preservation  of,  Belins'  pro- 
cess    141 

meth  od 140 

Preservation  of.  Redwood's 

process 141 

Price  of,  advancing  abroad..      7 

—  —  Prof.  Caldwell's  views  «m  the 

composition  of 59 

Kate  of  consumption 6 

Restoring  rancid 143 

Salting  and  packing,  Swedish 

system 152 

Table,  showing  experiments    51 

—  —  Saltpeter  and  sugar  for  pre- 

serving, in  Orange  Co 103 

Washing  the 138 

What     the     appearance    of, 

should  be 137 

Whey 154 

—  —  Whey,  process  of  making....  155 

White  specks  in 87 

Working  in.  salt  106 

Working  the 104 

Working     and     salting      at 

Union  Factory 113 

Worker 104-64 

Worker,  Champion 105 

Worker,  Eureka 04-ti5 

Cans,  Carrying  ventilated .•  116 

—  Wickott's  ventilating 117 

Churns  and  Churning 96 

Churns 63 

Cliurn,  Barrel iOl 

Blanchard 63 

Blanchard's  Factory 100-101 

Dash  and  walking-beam 98 

Dasher 9T 

.^'actory 101 

Powers 64 

Tornado 63 

Whipple's  rectangular 64 

Coecal  E.xtremities  or  follicles o9 

Colostrum   or    first    drawn    milk  of 

the  cow 37 

(^)mpositio^  of 38 

Composition    of    milk,    cream   and 

butter 54 

Cows  breathing  foul  air 17 

—  Brief  summary  of  items  in  the 

care  of  milch 15 

—  Care  of 14 

—  Coming  in  milk 19 

—  Cleansing  the  blood  of 19 


170 


Index. 


Cows,  docility  of   temper,  how   ac- 
quired      17 

—  How  brutal  treatment  of,  af- 

lectstlie  milk  25 

—  Jerkiiij;  out  of  staiKliions 17 

—  Jersey 9 

—  Number  required  for  the  but- 

ter crop fi 

—  Result  of  crowding  too  close. 

—  Should  be  full  fed 31 

—  Small  breed,  richest  milk 9 

—  The  average   butter  product 

of  11 

—  The,  for  butter  dairying 8 

—  The  milking  habit  educated..    16 

—  View  of  udder  of 41 

—  Water  after  salting 17 

Cheese.  Skim,  cutting  and  scalding.  IGO 

—  Skim,  coloring 1.5*3 

—  Skim  department  of 156 

—  Skim,  manufacture 159 

—  Skim,  setting 1(J0 

—  Skim,  sizeof Ifil 

—  Skim,  rennet  for ItK) 

—  Oleomargarine 162 

—  Oleomargarine,     amount     of 

milk  used 107 

—  Oieomarggarine,  butter  taken 

from  milk 1C5 

—  Oleomargarine,  milk   not    al- 

lowed to  sour  for 167 

—  Oleomargarine,    milk    set   at 

higher  temperature IGS 

Oleom.rgarine  mode  of  manu- 
facture   16S 

—  Oleomargarine,     setting    the 

milk 169 

—  Oleomargarine,    weight    less 

than  full  milk 167 

Oleomargarine,  product  made  167 

—  Press.  Frazer's  Gang 1.58-160 

Cream,  Analyses   of,  different    au- 
thorities     48 

—  Agitation  of  in  Churning 137 

—  Clotted  78 

—  Composition  of 47 

—  Composition  of  different  sam- 

ples of 48 

—  Churning,  the  best  tempera- 

ture for 137 

—  Churning    at     Cold      Spring 

Creamery 129 

—  Gauge  per  cent 11 

—  Obtained  from  milk  co(tled  by 

ice  water,  Swedish  system...  151 

—  Of    first   drawn    milk    poorer 

than  that  of  last  drawn 49 

—  Percentage  of.  in  milk 54 

—  More,  the    mbre  the  original 

heat  J  s  retained 1.50 

—  Strainer t>2 

—  Sour,  makes  more  and  better 

butter 1G7 

—  Temperature  of,  when  churns 

are  started 130 

—  Time  required  to  rise. Swedish 

system 151 

—  Treatment    of,  Swedish   sys- 

tem   151 

Creamery,  Cooling  Vats  for 164 

For     a     small     number     of 

cows 111-112 

Interior  view  of K>5 

Laree  pan  system 124 

Pail  and  pool  svstem !<2 

Plan  for  a  large 114 

Ridge  Mills 162 

•  Ridge  Mills,  eievati(m IGf! 

Ridge  Mills,  plan  of KB 

—  —  Reports 131 


Dairymen  Questions  for U 

Dairying,  Winter 32 

Mr.  Boies',  practice 33 

Dairies,  Farm 61 

Dairv-room.    Wilkinson's    descrip- 
tion of 81-85 

Dairy.  Wilkinson's  Gulf  Stream 7g 

—  Plan  of  Gulf  Stream  82-83 

—  Wilkinson'sSuper  cooling  duct    81 

—  Wilkinson's,  reversing  the  cir- 

culation      80 

—  Wilkinson's,     action    of    the 

ducts 79 

—  Wilkinson's.  Salubrity  secured    80 

Factories.  Organizing 89 

Factory,  Butter  box Ill 

Plan  for  a  butter  and  cheese 

combined  122-123 

Plan  of  butter  on   the  large 

f>r  shallow.setting  system.. .  127 

The  new  departure  in  man- 
agement     9ft 

Fat,  Composition  of  liquid  in  mar- 

—  row 56 

—  More  the  less  space  of  time  in- 

tervening between  milking...    53 

Fats.  Stearine  and  Oleine  in 5H> 

Feeding 26 

Garget,  Saltpeter  for 19 

Glycerides 60 

Grass  and  grain  feeding 20 

Grasses  are   social 29 

Grass,  different  order  of  seeds  for 

pastures  than  meadows 30 

—  First  turning  to 19 

—  June,   wire,  meadow,   fescue, 

and   orchard 28 

—  Varieties  esteemed  for  butter 

dairying 27 

Hoven.  Remedvfor 20 

Ice-water,  hight  of,  Swedish 150 

—  —  Methoil.  Swedish 149 

Ice.  Quantity  required.  Swedish 1.50 

Mammary  Gland,  mode  of  action  of  43 
Margarine, Supposed  composition  of  59 
Milk,  Amount  of  butter  and  cheese 

in,  tables  of 12-13 

—  Best  from  young  animals 46 

—  Butter  in 64 

—  Cellar  with  ice-house  attach- 

ment   7.?-74 

—  Churning  the 1.35 

—  Milk  Cellar,  Crozier's 74 

—  Comingin 19 

—  Composition  of  new 46 

—  Composition  of  Skimmed 50 

—  Concerning  acidity  in 86. 

—  Considered  in  its  physiological 

and  chemical  relations 35 

—  Death  fi-oni  using  impure 22 

—  Diseased,  from    tilthy    stables 

and  diseased  vegetables 21 

—  Disoa-^cd.  nature  of  the  poison 

uncertain 22 

—  Devonshire  plan  of  scalding...    77 

—  Difference  in   composition   of 

in  different  animals 47 

—  Deep  and  shallow  setting  of...    88 

—  Fatty  matter  of 46 

—  Forcing  air  into 66 

—  Globules,     largest     in   Jersey 

cows 45 

—  Globules,     microscopical     ap- 

pearance of 36 

—  How  affected    by  brutal  treat- 

ment of  cows 20-25 

—  Influence  of  insufficient  food. 

on 23 

—  Managem(^nt  of,  carried  to  the 

creauiery IW 


Index. 


m 


Milk,  House,  Farm  dairy 65 

—  Manner  of  treating 94 

—  Means  employed  for  detecting 

diluted 118 

—  Percentajje  of  cream  and  but- 

ter in 54 

—  Poisoned  by  animalculae 24 

—  poisoned   by  violent  emotions 

or  shocks  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem     24 

—  Room  artificial  heat  in.  coun- 

teracts    the      influence      of 
thunderstorms...  .  75 

—  Quicker      cooled,     the     more 

cream 149 

—  Room,  heating  the 75 

—  Scalding  the 76 

—  Secreting  follicles    and  ducts 

arrangement  of 40 

—  Skimmed,  amount  of  oleomar- 

garine ailJed 167 

—  SIcim,  improving  for  cheese...  161 

—  Vats,  factory 15^> 

—  Swedish  treatment  of 143 

—  Tables  of . .  .12-1:^ 

—  Testing  of  each  animal 10 

—  'I'heiM-y  of  Souring .    54 

—  Typhoid    fever     germs    com- 

municated through 24 

—  Treatment  of 1J2 

—  Uniformity  in  the  composition 

of 52 

—  Pan,  Cowles....; 127 

—  —     Jewett'a 126 

—  —      Orange  Co 126 

—  Setting     for     cream  at    Cold 

Spring  Creamery 129 

Oleomargarine.  Cost  of 168 

Overstocking ,30 

Package.  Empire  butter 14(5 

—  —    Ice  lor  butter  prints Ill 

—  —    The  metalic  demanded  by 

the  trade 147 

—  —    Metalic  euameled  butter...  145 

—  —    Metalic  with  wooden  cover  146 

—  —    Stone's  tin.,, J46 


Package,  Roll  butter  in  tin  cases. ...  144 

—  —    Roll  butter  for  market 143 

—  —    Roll  butter  in  jars,  prepar- 

ing the  brine,  etc 144 

—  —    Butter 107 

—  —    White's  butter 110 

—  —    for  butter  prints  llO-lll 

Pails , 62 

—  Butter,  Philadelphia 71 

—  Butter,  Wescott's  Return......  108 

—  Cleansing 62 

—  for  setting  milk,  Swedish  sys- 
tem   148 

—  and  Cream  Dipper 95 

—  Oval-shaped,  Swedish  system.  149 
Pans,  Bunnell  &  Brown's  Iron  Clad  76-77 

—  Jewett 125 

Results  from  the  Union  Creamery..  114 

Salt  weigher 130 

Sailing  after  expelling  butter-milk   102 

—  cows 17 

—  Philosophy  of,  for  butter....  138 

Scales,  Factory 117 

Secretion 38 

Spring  House 67 

—       —       Pennsylvania 68 

Stock,  Important  considerations  in 

the  care  of 26 

Steamer  and  Caldron,  Eagle 121 

Tanks,  Cooling,  Swedish 148 

Temperature  of  Cream  for  churn- 
ing at  Cold  Spring  Factory  130 

—  —    Controlling  in  dairy  rooms    67 

—  —    cooling   room,    Swedish...  150 

Vaccinic  Acid 59 

Vat,  Cream 115 

—  and  Heater,  Roe's 159 

—  Jones  &  Faulkner's 157 

—  Portable  Heater,  Millar's 158 

—  Self-heaters 1.57 

Ventilation 18 

Vault,  Construction  of 72 

Dry  system 71 

Jvocation 72 

Milk,  and  churn  room 73 

Water  for  Cows 19 


■^-.-'At^  :■    --.V 


\^^ 


■1  ^' 

;  i 

i  ; 

1  ■ 


